Ethics, Integrity and Aptitude is UPSC CSE's Mains GS Paper IV, worth 250 marks and heavily case-study driven. This module covers the foundations of ethics, the major ethical theories (Utilitarianism, Deontology, Virtue Ethics, Gandhian ethics, Rawlsian justice), public service values and integrity, Indian and Western moral thinkers, governance and probity institutions, and attitude/emotional intelligence — with every theory, thinker, act, committee and numeric fact carried over, plus worked examples and diagrams for each topic.
After studying this chapter you will be able to:
Ethics has no strict subject prerequisite, but public service values and anti-corruption institutions (Lokpal, CVC, CBI) connect directly with Indian Polity's constitutional bodies, and case-study reasoning benefits from the same structured argumentation used in CSAT's Analytical Ability. Once you've worked through the chapters below, head to the Ethics hub page to generate practice tests, or explore Study Material for other UPSC CSE subjects.
Ethics is the branch of philosophy concerned with morality — what is right and wrong, good and bad, just and unjust. For UPSC GS Paper IV, understanding the distinction between ethics, morality, values, and related concepts is the essential starting point.
| Term | Meaning |
|---|---|
| Ethics | Systematic philosophical study of moral principles, values, and rules governing human conduct; "moral philosophy"; normative + analytical |
| Morality | Society's accepted standards of right and wrong behaviour; often used interchangeably with ethics but morality is more societal/community-based |
| Values | Deeply held beliefs about what is important, desirable, or worthwhile; guide behaviour; intrinsic (good in themselves) vs instrumental (means to an end) |
| Attitude | Learned predisposition to respond to a person/object/idea in a consistently favourable or unfavourable way; has cognitive (belief) + affective (feeling) + behavioural (action) components |
| Aptitude | Natural ability or potential to acquire skill; different from acquired skill; tested in CSAT; in ethics context = natural tendency toward ethical behaviour |
| Integrity | Consistency between one's values, thoughts, words, and actions; "wholeness"; refusing to compromise principles under pressure |
| Branch | Question Asked | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Metaethics | What IS morality? Are moral facts objective? What do moral terms mean? | Is "good" objective or subjective? (Moral realism vs relativism) |
| Normative Ethics | What SHOULD we do? What makes actions right/wrong? | Utilitarianism, Deontology, Virtue Ethics — the major theories |
| Applied Ethics | How do ethical principles apply to specific real-world issues? | Medical ethics, environmental ethics, business ethics, civil service ethics |
| Descriptive Ethics | What do people actually believe is right? (Empirical, not prescriptive) | Anthropological study of cultural moral practices |
Ethics = philosophical study; Morality = society's accepted standards
Metaethics, Normative, Applied, Descriptive
Ahimsa, Satya, Asteya, Brahmacharya, Aparigraha
Law = minimum enforceable standard; Ethics = broader, aspirational
Given: A philosopher asks, "Is 'good' an objective property of the universe, or merely a human construct?" Which branch of ethics does this question belong to?
Solution: This question is about the nature and meaning of moral terms themselves, not about what actions to take or how principles apply to a case.
Answer: Metaethics — it examines what morality IS, not what we should do.
Given: (a) A company legally avoids taxes using loopholes designed for other purposes. (b) An activist breaks a curfew law to protest a discriminatory policy, accepting arrest. Classify each.
Solution: (a) is entirely legal, yet many would consider it ethically questionable since it defeats the law's intent. (b) is illegal, but is a classic case of civil disobedience considered ethical by many, provided it is nonviolent and the actor accepts the legal consequence.
Answer: (a) Legal but arguably unethical; (b) Illegal but ethical (civil disobedience).
Given: A civil servant is asked by a senior to bend procurement rules for a well-connected contractor. Using the concept of svadharma, how should she reason about her duty?
Solution: Svadharma holds that one's duty is defined by one's role/station — here, the officer's role-based duty is to uphold fair, rule-based procurement, not to serve personal or political convenience.
Answer: Her svadharma as a procurement officer is to follow due process impartially, regardless of pressure.
Fig. 1.1 — The four branches of ethics: Metaethics (what morality is), Normative Ethics (what we should do), Applied Ethics (real-world application), and Descriptive Ethics (what people actually believe).
UPSC expects you to identify which theory applies to a scenario and evaluate its strengths and weaknesses. The three dominant western theories — Utilitarianism, Deontology, and Virtue Ethics — plus Gandhian ethics and Rawlsian justice must be mastered with their key thinkers, core ideas, and critiques.
| Theory | Core Idea | Key Thinker(s) | Strength | Weakness |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Utilitarianism (Consequentialism) | "Greatest happiness for the greatest number"; rightness determined by outcomes/consequences; maximize overall well-being | Jeremy Bentham (hedonic calculus); J.S. Mill (quality of pleasures) | Practical; considers everyone's welfare equally; quantifiable | May justify harming minority for majority; hard to predict consequences; ignores rights |
| Deontological Ethics | Rightness determined by adherence to rules/duties, regardless of consequences; moral absolutes exist | Immanuel Kant (Categorical Imperative) | Protects individual rights; consistent; respects persons as ends not means | Rigid; ignores consequences; conflicting duties create dilemmas |
| Virtue Ethics | Focus on character and virtues of moral agent; "what kind of person should I be?"; right action flows from virtuous character | Aristotle (eudaimonia — human flourishing; golden mean) | Focuses on whole person; holistic; applicable to character development | Vague action guidance; cultural variability of virtues; circular reasoning |
| Rights-Based Ethics | Individuals have inherent rights that must be respected; actions violating rights are wrong regardless of consequences | John Locke (natural rights: life, liberty, property); Robert Nozick | Protects individual dignity; foundational for human rights | Rights can conflict; does not resolve which rights take priority |
| Care Ethics | Moral decisions should be guided by care, relationships, and context; emphasises empathy and responsibility to particular others | Carol Gilligan; Nel Noddings | Captures relational nature of ethics; empathy-centred | May neglect impartiality; hard to generalise |
| Social Contract Theory | Morality and political authority derive from agreement among individuals; state legitimised by consent | Hobbes (absolute sovereign); Locke (natural rights, limited govt.); Rousseau (general will); Rawls (justice as fairness) | Grounds political obligation; explains cooperation | Hypothetical; excludes those who cannot contract (animals, disabled) |
Greatest happiness for the greatest number (Bentham, Mill)
Universalisability + treat humanity as an end, never merely as a means
Eudaimonia (flourishing) via the golden mean (Aristotle)
Equal basic liberties + Difference Principle
Given: During a vaccine shortage, an officer allocates scarce doses to save the maximum number of lives, even though some low-priority patients receive none. Which ethical theory best explains this reasoning?
Solution: The decision is justified purely by the outcome — maximising total lives saved — rather than by any rule or the character of the decision-maker.
Answer: Utilitarianism — maximising overall welfare for the greatest number.
Given: A minister argues that a small act of electoral fraud is justified because it will bring a genuinely better government to power. Evaluate this using Gandhian ethics versus Kautilya's Arthashastra.
Solution: Kautilya's pragmatic statecraft could accept impure means for a good outcome if it serves the welfare of subjects; Gandhian ethics categorically rejects this, insisting the means must be as pure as the ends — fraud can never be justified by its result.
Answer: Kautilya might tolerate it pragmatically; Gandhi would reject it outright, since means must equal ends.
Given: A government reserves a percentage of public jobs for historically disadvantaged castes. Justify this policy using Rawls' Difference Principle.
Solution: Rawls permits social or economic inequalities only if they work to the benefit of the least advantaged members of society — reservation policy directly targets improving outcomes for the most disadvantaged group.
Answer: The policy is justified because it benefits the least advantaged, satisfying the Difference Principle.
Fig. 2.1 — Three major Western ethical theories compared: Utilitarianism judges by outcomes, Deontology by duties, and Virtue Ethics by the character of the moral agent.
Public service values define how civil servants should conduct themselves. The ARC (Administrative Reforms Commission) and Nolan Committee frameworks are the standard references for UPSC GS Paper IV answers on this topic.
| Value | Meaning for Civil Servants |
|---|---|
| Integrity | Consistency between values, words, and actions; refusing to compromise principles for personal gain or political pressure |
| Impartiality | Treating all citizens equally regardless of religion, caste, gender, region; decisions free from personal bias |
| Non-partisanship | Political neutrality; serving the government of the day faithfully while remaining politically uncommitted personally |
| Objectivity | Decisions based on evidence and merit, not personal preferences or affiliations |
| Dedication to Public Service | Commitment to public welfare over personal interests; "service before self" |
| Empathy | Understanding and sharing the feelings of others, especially vulnerable groups; essential for people-centered governance |
| Tolerance | Respect for diversity — religious, cultural, linguistic; facilitating peaceful coexistence |
| Compassion | Genuine concern for the suffering of others; motivates pro-poor policies and humane implementation |
| Accountability | Answerability to citizens and superiors; accepting responsibility for decisions and their consequences |
| Transparency | Openness in decision-making; enabling public scrutiny; RTI Act 2005 as legal embodiment |
Selflessness, Integrity, Objectivity, Accountability, Openness, Honesty, Leadership
Prohibited above ₹25,000 under AIS/CCS Conduct Rules
2014; identity protection; anti-victimisation
Decision-making integrity + financial propriety + conduct + behaviour
Given: A procurement officer's brother owns a company bidding for a government contract she is evaluating. What should she do?
Solution: Her personal (familial) interest could improperly influence her professional duty of impartial evaluation — this is a textbook conflict of interest.
Answer: She must declare the conflict of interest and recuse herself from evaluating that particular bid.
Given: A minister is offered a lucrative private-sector board position by a company that benefited from a decision she made in office. Which Nolan principle is most directly at stake?
Solution: Selflessness requires acting solely in the public interest, not for personal benefit — accepting such an offer, especially if linked to a past official decision, undermines this principle.
Answer: Selflessness (and potentially Integrity, since she risks placing herself under an obligation to an outside party).
Given: An engineer discovers falsified safety inspection reports for a public infrastructure project and reports it externally, risking her job. How is this ethically justified?
Solution: The engineer's duty to public safety and the public interest overrides her organisational loyalty — loyalty has ethical limits when the institution's conduct is unlawful and dangerous.
Answer: Justified whistle-blowing — public interest overrides institutional loyalty when the institution itself is acting wrongly.
Fig. 3.1 — Nolan's Seven Principles of Public Life, the standard UK framework referenced across UPSC GS-IV answers on public service values.
UPSC GS Paper IV directly asks about contributions of moral thinkers and philosophers. Both Indian and Western thinkers are tested. Know each thinker's one core concept, a memorable quote, and its application to governance/civil services.
| Thinker | Era | Core Ethical Contribution | Key Quote / Concept |
|---|---|---|---|
| Kautilya (Chanakya) | ~350–275 BCE | Arthashastra: pragmatic statecraft; ruler's duty = praja sukha (welfare of subjects); end sometimes justifies means in governance; saptanga theory (7 elements of state) | "The happiness of the subjects is the happiness of the king" |
| Gautama Buddha | ~563–483 BCE | Middle Path (avoid extremes); Four Noble Truths; Eightfold Path; compassion (karuna) + loving-kindness (metta); Ahimsa; Sangha welfare | "Hatred is never appeased by hatred; it is appeased by love" |
| Mahavira | ~599–527 BCE | Ahimsa as supreme principle; Anekantavada (many-sidedness of truth); Pancha Mahavrata; non-possession | "Live and let live" (Ahimsa Paramo Dharma) |
| Swami Vivekananda | 1863–1902 | Practical Vedanta: service to mankind = service to God; "Daridra Narayan" — God in the poor; nationalism rooted in spirituality; character as foundation | "Each soul is potentially divine"; "Serve, love, give, purify, meditate, realise" |
| Mahatma Gandhi | 1869–1948 | Satya + Ahimsa as inseparable; Satyagraha; Trusteeship; Sarvodaya; Nai Talim (basic education); means must equal ends | "Be the change you wish to see in the world" |
| Rabindranath Tagore | 1861–1941 | Universal humanism; dignity of all humans; freedom of mind over blind nationalism; synthesis of East and West; aesthetic ethics; Gitanjali | "Where the mind is without fear and the head is held high" (Gitanjali) |
| B.R. Ambedkar | 1891–1956 | Constitutional morality over conventional morality; social justice; dignity of the individual; annihilation of caste; fraternity; liberty-equality-fraternity trinity | "Constitutional morality is not a natural sentiment; it has to be cultivated" |
| Thinker | Era | Core Contribution | Key Concept |
|---|---|---|---|
| Socrates | ~470–399 BCE | Examined life; moral knowledge as virtue; "Know thyself"; Socratic method (elenchus) — questioning to expose ignorance and reach truth; died for principles | "The unexamined life is not worth living" |
| Plato | ~428–348 BCE | Theory of Forms; four cardinal virtues (wisdom, courage, temperance, justice); philosopher-king ideal; Republic as just state; soul has reason + spirit + appetite | Cardinal virtues: Prudentia, Fortitudo, Temperantia, Iustitia |
| Aristotle | 384–322 BCE | Virtue ethics; eudaimonia (flourishing); golden mean (virtue is between excess and deficiency); practical wisdom (phronesis); political animal; friendship (philia) | "We are what we repeatedly do. Excellence, then, is not an act, but a habit" |
| Immanuel Kant | 1724–1804 | Deontological ethics; Categorical Imperative; duty-based morality; autonomy of will; treating persons as ends; moral worth from intention, not outcome | "Act only according to that maxim by which you can will it to become universal law" |
| Jeremy Bentham | 1748–1832 | Utilitarianism; hedonic calculus; pleasure minus pain; greatest happiness principle; Panopticon prison design; consequentialism | "The greatest happiness of the greatest number is the foundation of morals and legislation" |
| J.S. Mill | 1806–1873 | Refined utilitarianism; quality vs quantity of pleasure; "better Socrates dissatisfied than fool satisfied"; harm principle; liberty; women's rights | "It is better to be Socrates dissatisfied than a fool satisfied" |
| John Rawls | 1921–2002 | Theory of Justice; veil of ignorance; original position; two principles of justice; difference principle; justice as fairness; lexical priority of liberty | "Justice is the first virtue of social institutions" |
Wisdom, Courage, Temperance, Justice
Middle Path; Four Noble Truths; Eightfold Path
Ahimsa, Satya, Asteya, Brahmacharya, Aparigraha
Satya, Ahimsa, Satyagraha, Sarvodaya, Trusteeship
Given: An officer must decide how much to delegate authority to subordinates. Too much delegation risks losing control; too little stifles initiative. Using Aristotle's golden mean, how should she approach this?
Solution: The golden mean holds that virtue lies between excess and deficiency — here, between the excess of micromanagement and the deficiency of complete disengagement.
Answer: She should find the balanced middle path — delegating meaningfully while retaining appropriate oversight, neither extreme.
Given: "Constitutional morality is not a natural sentiment; it has to be cultivated." Which thinker said this, and what does it imply for civil servants?
Solution: This is B.R. Ambedkar's core insight — that respecting constitutional values does not come naturally and must be deliberately trained into public officials.
Answer: B.R. Ambedkar — implying civil servants must actively cultivate loyalty to constitutional values, not assume it is instinctive.
Given: Contrast Socrates' approach to ethical questioning with Kautilya's approach to statecraft.
Solution: Socrates used relentless questioning (the Socratic method) to expose false certainty and pursue objective moral truth, even at personal cost (he was executed for his principles). Kautilya, by contrast, took a pragmatic, outcome-oriented approach where the ruler's duty to subjects' welfare could justify flexible means.
Answer: Socrates = principled truth-seeking regardless of personal cost; Kautilya = pragmatic, outcome-driven statecraft.
Fig. 4.1 — Timeline of major moral thinkers: from ancient Indian and Greek philosophers through Enlightenment-era Kant, Bentham and Mill, to modern figures like Gandhi, Ambedkar and Rawls.
This chapter covers the institutional and legal framework for ethical governance in India — RTI, Lokpal, anti-corruption laws, corporate governance, and the 2nd ARC recommendations on ethics. These are directly tested in UPSC GS Paper IV.
| Law / Institution | Year | Key Provisions |
|---|---|---|
| Prevention of Corruption Act | 1988; amended 2018 | Defines offences of bribery and corruption by public servants; 2018 Amendment: criminalises bribe-giving (not just taking); protection for bonafide decisions of public servants |
| Lokpal and Lokayuktas Act | 2013 | Lokpal = ombudsman at Centre; investigates corruption by PM (with restrictions), ministers, MPs, senior govt. officials; Lokayuktas in states; Anna Hazare movement → Jan Lokpal demand |
| RTI Act (Right to Information) | 2005 | Citizens can request information from public authorities; 30-day response deadline (48 hours for life/liberty); Central Information Commission + State ICs; exemptions: national security, cabinet papers; 2019 amendment made CIC/IC tenures govt.-determined |
| Whistle Blowers Protection Act | 2014 | Protects public servants making disclosures; identity protection; prohibits victimisation; Competent Authority investigates |
| CVC (Central Vigilance Commission) | 1964 (statutory 2003) | Apex body for anti-corruption; advisory + supervisory; superintendence over CBI in corruption cases; no investigative powers itself |
| CBI (Central Bureau of Investigation) | 1963 (DSPE Act 1946) | Primary anti-corruption + federal crimes investigation agency; under MHA; general consent issue with states; supervised by CVC for corruption cases |
30 days; 48 hours for life/liberty matters
2% of average net profit (Companies Act 2013, Sec 135)
2018 — criminalises bribe-giving, not just bribe-taking
4th Report, 2007 — "Ethics in Governance"
Given: A company's average net profit over the last three years is ₹8 crore, and it meets the threshold for mandatory CSR under the Companies Act 2013. How much must it spend on CSR?
Solution:
\( \text{CSR spend} = 2\% \times ₹8\ \text{crore} = ₹16\ \text{lakh} \)
Answer: ₹16 lakh — 2% of the average net profit, as mandated under Section 135.
Given: A citizen wants to file a complaint about corruption by a senior government official but is unsure which body has oversight — investigative powers or advisory/supervisory powers only. Distinguish CVC from CBI.
Solution: The CVC has advisory and supervisory powers, exercising superintendence over the CBI in corruption cases, but has no investigative powers of its own; the CBI is the actual investigating agency.
Answer: The complaint would ultimately be investigated by the CBI, under the CVC's supervisory oversight for corruption matters.
Given: A citizen files an RTI application concerning information that could affect a person's life or personal liberty. What is the mandated response timeline?
Solution: While the standard RTI deadline is 30 days, requests concerning life or liberty carry an expedited timeline given the urgency involved.
Answer: 48 hours, as mandated for information concerning life or liberty under the RTI Act, 2005.
Fig. 5.1 — India's anti-corruption institutional flow: complaints route through CVC/Lokpal oversight, CBI investigation, and finally trial before a Special Court.
Emotional Intelligence (EI/EQ), attitude formation, and their role in civil service decision-making are core topics in GS Paper IV. Goleman's 5 components of EI and the ABC model of attitude are frequently referenced in answers and case studies.
| Model | Components |
|---|---|
| Salovey & Mayer (1990) — original academic model | 4 abilities: (1) Perceiving emotions; (2) Using emotions to facilitate thought; (3) Understanding emotions; (4) Managing emotions |
| Goleman (1995) — popularised model | 5 components: (1) Self-awareness; (2) Self-regulation; (3) Motivation; (4) Empathy; (5) Social skills |
| Bar-On model | Emotional-social intelligence as multi-factorial: intrapersonal + interpersonal + adaptability + stress management + general mood |
| Component | Definition | IAS/Civil Service Application |
|---|---|---|
| Self-awareness | Recognising one's own emotions, strengths, weaknesses, drives, and values; knowing how emotions affect performance | Recognising personal biases; self-assessment before decisions; avoiding reactive responses under pressure |
| Self-regulation | Controlling or redirecting disruptive emotions; thinking before acting; adaptability; trustworthiness | Maintaining composure in crises; resisting temptation to misuse power; consistent behaviour |
| Motivation | Passion for work beyond money or status; optimism; drive to achieve; resilience after failure | Commitment to public service; persisting through bureaucratic obstacles; intrinsic motivation |
| Empathy | Understanding the emotional makeup of other people; skill in treating people according to their emotional reactions | Understanding needs of marginalised communities; sensitive communication; disaster relief management |
| Social Skills | Managing relationships; building networks; finding common ground; communication; conflict management | Coordination across departments; community mobilisation; political-administrative interface management |
Affective + Behavioural + Cognitive components
Festinger, 1957 — conflict between attitude and behaviour
Coined by Salovey & Mayer (1990); popularised by Goleman (1995)
Self-awareness, Self-regulation, Motivation, Empathy, Social skills
Given: A citizen believes (based on news reports) that a particular government scheme is corrupt, feels angry about it, and refuses to apply for its benefits. Identify the three ABC components in this scenario.
Solution: The belief that the scheme is corrupt is the Cognitive component; the anger is the Affective component; the refusal to apply is the Behavioural component.
Answer: Cognitive = belief in corruption; Affective = anger; Behavioural = refusal to apply.
Given: An officer who believes strongly in environmental protection is forced to approve a project that causes significant ecological damage due to political pressure. How might cognitive dissonance theory explain her likely psychological response?
Solution: The conflict between her pro-environment attitude and her approval behaviour creates psychological discomfort (dissonance); she will likely resolve it either by changing her attitude (rationalising the project as necessary) or by changing her behaviour (resisting or seeking to reverse the approval).
Answer: She experiences cognitive dissonance and will seek to reduce it — either by rationalisation or by future resistance/reversal.
Given: A district magistrate must design a disaster relief distribution plan for flood-affected villages with different cultural and economic needs. Which of Goleman's EI components is most critical here, and why?
Solution: Effective disaster relief requires understanding the differing emotional and practical needs of diverse affected communities — precisely what Goleman defines as empathy.
Answer: Empathy — understanding and responding sensitively to the varied needs of different affected groups.
Fig. 6.1 — The ABC model of attitude: Affective (feelings), Behavioural (action), and Cognitive (beliefs) components jointly constitute a person's attitude.
Jeremy Bentham (hedonic calculus) + J.S. Mill (quality of pleasure)
Immanuel Kant; Categorical Imperative
Aristotle; eudaimonia; golden mean
Veil of ignorance; original position; difference principle; justice as fairness
Satya + Ahimsa; means must equal ends; Sarvodaya; Trusteeship
Treat humanity always as an end, never merely as a means
Constitutional morality over conventional morality
"Excellence is not an act, but a habit" / Golden Mean
"The unexamined life is not worth living"
Wisdom, Courage, Temperance, Justice
Selflessness, Integrity, Objectivity, Accountability, Openness, Honesty, Leadership
Highest standard of ethical behaviour in public office; complete integrity
2005; 30-day deadline; 48 hours for life/liberty
2013
2018 — now criminalises bribe-giving (not just taking)
Advisory + supervisory; no investigative powers; statutory since 2003
2014; protects identity; prohibits victimisation
4th Report, 2007; recommended Code of Ethics + Code of Conduct
Companies Act 2013, Sec 135; 2% of average net profit
People + Planet + Profit; John Elkington, 1994
Affective + Behavioural + Cognitive components
Festinger 1957; conflict between attitude and behaviour
Salovey & Mayer, 1990
Daniel Goleman, 1995
Self-awareness, Self-regulation, Motivation, Empathy, Social skills
Middle Path; Four Noble Truths; Eightfold Path; Ahimsa; Karuna
Kautilya; praja sukha = ruler's duty; pragmatic; state welfare
Service to man = service to God; Daridra Narayan
| Topic | GS-IV Theory Focus | Case Study Application |
|---|---|---|
| Foundations of Ethics | Definitions; branches of ethics; Indian traditions | Distinguishing legal vs ethical dimensions of a scenario |
| Ethical Theories | Theory-thinker matching; strengths/weaknesses | Selecting and defending a theoretical lens for a dilemma |
| Public Service Values | Nolan's principles; probity elements; conduct rules | Identifying conflicts of interest; whistle-blowing scenarios |
| Moral Thinkers | Thinker-quote-concept matching | Invoking a thinker's framework to justify a course of action |
| Governance & Probity | Institution facts; Act years and provisions | Recommending institutional remedies for corruption cases |
| Attitude & EI | ABC model; Goleman's components; EI models | Diagnosing emotional/attitudinal drivers behind a case study's actors |
Q1. A company's average net profit over three years is ₹8 crore, and it meets the CSR threshold. Under Companies Act 2013 Sec 135, how much must it spend on CSR?
Q2. Contrast "Ends do not justify means" (Gandhian ethics) with Kautilya's Arthashastra approach to statecraft.
Q3. An officer allocates scarce vaccine doses to save the maximum number of lives, even though some low-priority patients receive none. Which ethical theory best explains this reasoning?
Q4. A civil servant reports financial irregularities in her department through CPGRAMS and receives legal protection. Which Act protects her?
Q5. Using Rawls' Difference Principle, justify a reservation policy for disadvantaged castes in public employment.