History, Art & Culture is one of the highest-yield sections of UPSC CSE Prelims and forms a core part of Mains GS Paper I. This module spans Ancient India (Indus Valley to Gupta Empire), Medieval India (Delhi Sultanate to Mughals), Modern India under British rule, the Freedom Struggle, Art and Culture (temples, dance, music), and Post-Independence India — with every date, dynasty, movement, and numeric fact carried over, plus worked examples and diagrams for each topic.
After studying this chapter you will be able to:
History has no strict subject prerequisite, but it connects closely with Indian Polity (constitutional amendments, integration of princely states) and Indian Economy (colonial economic impact, Five Year Plans). Once you've worked through the chapters below, head to the History hub page to generate practice tests, or explore Study Material for other UPSC CSE subjects.
Ancient India spans from the Indus Valley Civilisation (~3300 BCE) to the end of the Gupta Empire (~550 CE). This period is regularly tested in UPSC Prelims, especially Indus Valley, Vedic period, Buddhism, Jainism, and the Maurya–Gupta empires.
| Aspect | Key Facts |
|---|---|
| Major sites | Harappa (Punjab, Pakistan), Mohenjo-daro (Sindh, Pakistan), Dholavira (Gujarat), Lothal (Gujarat — dock), Kalibangan (Rajasthan), Rakhigarhi (Haryana — largest IVC site in India) |
| Script | Undeciphered; pictographic; written right to left (boustrophedon) |
| Economy | Trade-based; no coins; bartered; traded with Mesopotamia (Sumer) |
| Religion | Mother goddess worship; Proto-Shiva (Pashupati seal); no temple structures found |
| Town planning | Grid pattern; citadel (upper town) + lower town; great bath at Mohenjo-daro; granaries at Harappa; drainage system |
| Decline | Multiple theories: Aryan invasion (discarded), climate change, river drying (Ghaggar-Hakra = ancient Saraswati) |
| Notable finds | Bronze dancing girl; priest-king statue; Pashupati seal; unicorn seals; weights and measures (binary: 1,2,4,8,16) |
| Period | Features |
|---|---|
| Early Vedic (Rigvedic) ~1500–1000 BCE | Indo-Gangetic plains settled; tribal society (jana, vis, grama); Indra most important god; pastoral/agricultural; no cities; Sabha and Samiti assemblies |
| Later Vedic ~1000–600 BCE | Eastward expansion; agriculture dominant; varna system hardened (Brahmin, Kshatriya, Vaishya, Shudra); Prajapati/Vishnu/Shiva gain importance; 16 Mahajanapadas emerge |
| Four Vedas | Rigveda (hymns — oldest), Samaveda (melodies), Yajurveda (rituals), Atharvaveda (spells/medicine) |
| Upanishads | ~108 Upanishads; philosophical texts; Brahman-Atman concept; Chandogya, Brihadaranyaka most important |
| Aspect | Buddhism | Jainism |
|---|---|---|
| Founder | Gautama Buddha (Siddhartha); born Lumbini (Nepal) ~563 BCE | Vardhamana Mahavira; 24th tirthankara; born Vaishali ~599 BCE |
| Enlightenment | Bodh Gaya (Bihar) under Peepal tree; first sermon at Sarnath (Deer Park) | Jnana at age 42 at Jrimbhikagrama |
| Death (Parinirvana/Nirvana) | Kushinagar (UP) at age 80 | Pavapuri (Bihar) — fasted to death (Sallekhana) |
| Core teaching | Four Noble Truths, Eightfold Path, Middle Path; Anatta (no self); Anicca (impermanence) | Five vows (Pancha Mahavrata): Ahimsa, Satya, Asteya, Brahmacharya, Aparigraha; Anekantavada (many-sidedness) |
| Sects | Hinayana/Theravada; Mahayana; Vajrayana | Digambara (sky-clad); Shvetambara (white-clad) |
| Councils | 1st: Rajgriha; 2nd: Vaishali; 3rd: Pataliputra (Ashoka); 4th: Kashmir (Kanishka) | — |
| Ruler | Key Facts |
|---|---|
| Chandragupta Maurya | Founded empire; defeated Nanda dynasty; defeated Seleucus Nicator (312 BCE); Megasthenes sent as ambassador; wrote Indica; converted to Jainism; died at Shravanabelagola |
| Bindusara | Son of Chandragupta; expanded south; known as "Slayer of enemies" (Amitraghata) |
| Ashoka (268–232 BCE) | Kalinga War 261 BCE → transformation; propagated Dhamma (not Buddhism per se); sent missionaries (Mahendra, Sanghamitra to Sri Lanka); inscriptions on rocks, pillars; Arthashastra by Kautilya/Chanakya; National Emblem = Lion Capital at Sarnath |
~3300–1300 BCE; mature phase ~2600–1900 BCE
Rigveda, Samaveda, Yajurveda, Atharvaveda
321–185 BCE; Ashoka's Kalinga War 261 BCE
320–550 CE; Golden Age of ancient India
Given: Which IVC site is famous for having the world's first known dock/shipyard, and in which present-day state is it located?
Solution: Among the major IVC sites, Lothal in Gujarat is distinctively associated with maritime trade infrastructure.
Answer: Lothal, Gujarat.
Given: Match each event in Buddha's life to its correct location: birth, enlightenment, first sermon, and death.
Solution: Each of the four major life events of Buddha occurred at a distinct, specifically named location that UPSC frequently tests together as a set.
Answer: Birth — Lumbini; Enlightenment — Bodh Gaya; First Sermon — Sarnath; Death (Parinirvana) — Kushinagar.
Given: Which Gupta-era scholar wrote the Aryabhatiya, and what specific concept is he credited with regarding planetary motion?
Solution: Aryabhatta authored the Aryabhatiya and proposed that the Earth rotates on its axis — an early step toward heliocentric-style reasoning, distinct from Brahmagupta's later Brahmasphutasiddhanta.
Answer: Aryabhatta — Aryabhatiya; proposed Earth's axial rotation.
Fig. 1.1 — Timeline of Ancient India: from the Indus Valley Civilisation (~3300 BCE) through the Vedic period, the rise of Buddhism and Jainism, the Mauryan Empire, to the Gupta "Golden Age".
Medieval India covers the period from ~600 CE to the Mughal period (1526–1857). UPSC tests the Delhi Sultanate, Mughal administration, Vijayanagara Empire, Bhakti movement, and Sufi movement heavily.
| Dynasty | Period | Key Rulers | Notable |
|---|---|---|---|
| Slave/Mamluk | 1206–1290 | Qutbuddin Aibak, Iltutmish, Razia Sultan, Balban | Qutub Minar; Iltutmish introduced iqta system; first Muslim woman ruler Razia |
| Khalji | 1290–1320 | Alauddin Khalji, Jalaluddin Khalji | Market reforms (4 markets); conquered South India; repelled Mongols; Malik Kafur general |
| Tughlaq | 1320–1414 | Ghiyasuddin, Muhammad bin Tughlaq, Firuz Shah | Muhammad = token currency disaster + capital shift to Daulatabad; Firuz = welfare works |
| Sayyid | 1414–1451 | Khizr Khan | Weak; Timur's invasion aftermath |
| Lodi | 1451–1526 | Bahlul Lodi, Sikandar Lodi, Ibrahim Lodi | First Afghan dynasty; Ibrahim defeated by Babur at First Battle of Panipat 1526 |
| Ruler | Period | Key Contributions |
|---|---|---|
| Babur | 1526–1530 | Defeated Ibrahim Lodi (Panipat I, 1526); defeated Rana Sanga (Khanwa, 1527); introduced gunpowder/artillery; Baburnama (autobiography) |
| Humayun | 1530–40, 1555–56 | Lost empire to Sher Shah Suri; regained with Safavid help; died falling from library stairs; Din-Panah (Delhi) |
| Sher Shah Suri | 1540–1545 | Grand Trunk Road (Kabul–Bengal); Rupee introduced; postal system; land revenue reform (zabti system); Rohtas Fort |
| Akbar | 1556–1605 | Din-i-Ilahi (personal faith, not religion); Sulh-i-kul (peace for all); Ibadat Khana; abolished jizya; Fatehpur Sikri; Navratnas court; Ain-i-Akbari by Abul Fazl |
| Jahangir | 1605–1627 | Justice chain; Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri (autobiography); patron of painting (Ustad Mansur); Noor Jahan's influence |
| Shah Jahan | 1627–1658 | Taj Mahal (completed 1653, architect Ustad Ahmad Lahauri); Red Fort; Jama Masjid; Shahjahannama; Peacock Throne |
| Aurangzeb | 1658–1707 | Re-imposed jizya; Alamgir; Fatwa-e-Alamgiri; banned music at court; Deccan campaigns exhausted empire; Bibi Ka Maqbara |
| Movement | Key Saints | Region/Language | Key Idea |
|---|---|---|---|
| Bhakti (South) | Alvars (Vaishnava), Nayanars (Shaiva) | Tamil Nadu; Tamil | Personal devotion to Vishnu/Shiva; rejected caste |
| Ramananda | — | North India; Hindi | Bhakti open to all castes; disciple of Ramanuja |
| Kabir | Kabir Das | Varanasi; Hindi/Doha | Nirguna Bhakti; rejected idol worship; unity of God |
| Mirabai | — | Rajasthan; Hindi | Devotion to Krishna; wrote bhajans; royal princess |
| Guru Nanak | — | Punjab; Punjabi | Founded Sikhism; Ik Onkar; Nam Japna, Kirat Karo, Vand Chhako |
| Tukaram/Eknath | — | Maharashtra; Marathi | Varkari sect; Vitthal devotion |
| Sufi — Chishti | Moinuddin Chishti (Ajmer), Nizamuddin Auliya (Delhi) | — | Most popular in India; music/qawwali; open to all |
| Sufi — Suhrawardi | Bahauddin Zakariya | Multan | Less open; accumulated wealth |
Slave (1206) → Khalji (1290) → Tughlaq (1320) → Sayyid (1414) → Lodi (1451–1526)
1526 — Babur defeated Ibrahim Lodi
1565 — end of Vijayanagara Empire
Completed 1653; architect Ustad Ahmad Lahauri
Given: Which Delhi Sultanate dynasty introduced market reforms including price controls across four markets, and conquered large parts of South India?
Solution: Comprehensive market-control reforms and successful southern campaigns (with general Malik Kafur) are hallmarks specifically of the Khalji dynasty under Alauddin Khalji.
Answer: Khalji dynasty (Alauddin Khalji).
Given: Explain the difference between Akbar's "Din-i-Ilahi" and a state-imposed religion, and how "Sulh-i-kul" relates to it.
Solution: Din-i-Ilahi was a personal ethical-spiritual code Akbar developed for his court, never imposed on the general population as an official state religion; Sulh-i-kul ("peace for all") was the broader governing philosophy of religious tolerance underlying his administration.
Answer: Din-i-Ilahi was Akbar's personal faith, not an imposed state religion; Sulh-i-kul was his overarching policy of tolerance across all faiths.
Given: A saint from Varanasi composed dohas rejecting idol worship and preaching the unity of God across religions. Identify the saint and the type of Bhakti he represents.
Solution: This description matches Kabir Das, whose teachings are classified as Nirguna Bhakti — devotion to a formless, attribute-less God.
Answer: Kabir — representing Nirguna Bhakti.
Fig. 2.1 — The five dynasties of the Delhi Sultanate in succession: Slave, Khalji, Tughlaq, Sayyid, and Lodi — ending with Babur's victory at Panipat in 1526.
The Portuguese arrived first (Vasco da Gama landed at Calicut in 1498), followed by the Dutch, English, Danish, and French East India Companies. The decisive Anglo-French rivalry was settled in the Carnatic Wars and, more importantly, in Bengal.
| Power | Key base | Decline / exit |
|---|---|---|
| Portuguese | Goa, Daman, Diu (1510 onward) | Lost dominance after Dutch/English rise; Goa held until 1961 |
| Dutch | Pulicat, Nagapatnam | Defeated by English at Battle of Bedara (1759) |
| English (EIC) | Surat, Madras, Bombay, Calcutta | Emerged dominant after Plassey (1757) & Buxar (1764) |
| French | Pondicherry, Chandernagore | Lost Carnatic Wars (1744–63) to English |
| Event | Year | Significance |
|---|---|---|
| Battle of Plassey | 1757 | Clive defeated Siraj-ud-Daula; EIC dominance in Bengal began |
| Battle of Buxar | 1764 | EIC defeated combined armies of Bengal + Awadh + Mughal emperor; Treaty of Allahabad (1765) gave Diwani rights of Bengal, Bihar, Orissa to EIC |
| Regulating Act | 1773 | First Parliamentary control over EIC; Governor of Bengal → Governor-General; Supreme Court at Calcutta |
| Pitt's India Act | 1784 | Dual control — Board of Control (political) + Court of Directors (commercial) |
| Charter Act 1813 | 1813 | EIC's trade monopoly ended (except China tea); missionaries allowed; Rs 1 lakh for Indian education |
| Charter Act 1833 | 1833 | EIC ceased to be trading body; Governor-General of India created (first = Lord William Bentinck); Law Commission (Macaulay); open competition for services (not implemented) |
| Charter Act 1853 | 1853 | Last Charter Act; open competition for civil services (ICS); Legislation separated from Executive; no charter renewal (EIC became subordinate) |
| Government of India Act 1858 | 1858 | After 1857 revolt; EIC abolished; Crown rule; Secretary of State + Council of India; Viceroy (replaced Governor-General) |
| Anglo-Mysore Wars | 1767–99 | Four wars; Tipu Sultan killed at Srirangapatnam (1799) |
| Anglo-Maratha Wars | 1775–1818 | Three wars; end of Maratha power, Peshwaship abolished |
| Anglo-Sikh Wars | 1845–49 | Punjab annexed after second war (1849) |
| Name | Period | Key Acts/Events |
|---|---|---|
| Warren Hastings | 1773–1785 | First Governor-General; Regulating Act; Rohilla War; impeached by Parliament |
| Lord Cornwallis | 1786–1793 | Permanent Settlement (Zamindari) in Bengal 1793; Civil Services reforms; Cornwallis Code |
| Lord Wellesley | 1798–1805 | Subsidiary Alliance; expansion policy; defeated Tipu Sultan (1799) |
| Lord William Bentinck | 1828–1835 | Abolition of Sati (1829 — Regulation XVII); suppressed Thuggee; Macaulay's minute on English education; first Governor-General of India |
| Lord Dalhousie | 1848–1856 | Doctrine of Lapse; Railways (first line 1853, Bombay–Thane); telegraph; Post Office Act; annexation of Punjab, Awadh |
| Lord Canning | 1856–1862 | 1857 revolt; Government of India Act 1858; first Viceroy; Indian Councils Act 1861 |
| Lord Ripon | 1880–1884 | Local Self-Government (1882); Ilbert Bill controversy; First Factory Act 1881 |
| Lord Curzon | 1899–1905 | Partition of Bengal (1905); NWFP created; Ancient Monuments Act; established Archaeological Survey of India as per its modern form |
| Lord Irwin (Halifax) | 1926–1931 | Gandhi-Irwin Pact (1931); Round Table Conferences |
| Lord Mountbatten | 1947 | Last Viceroy; Independence and Partition; Mountbatten Plan |
Plassey (1757) → Buxar (1764) → Treaty of Allahabad (1765, Diwani rights) — 8 years from battlefield victory to formal revenue control of Bengal, Bihar, Odisha.
Permanent Settlement (zamindars, Bengal) · Ryotwari (cultivators, Madras/Bombay) · Mahalwari (village mahals, N-W Provinces/Punjab).
Satara (1848), Jaitpur & Sambalpur (1849), Udaipur (1852), Jhansi (1853), Nagpur (1854) — annexed for lack of a "natural" male heir under Dalhousie.
Government of India Act 1858 ends Company rule; Lord Canning becomes India's last Governor-General and first Viceroy.
Fig. 3.1 — Five milestones of British constitutional and economic control, 1773–1858.
| Organisation | Year | Founder |
|---|---|---|
| Brahmo Samaj | 1828 | Raja Ram Mohan Roy — against sati, child marriage; English education |
| Arya Samaj | 1875 | Swami Dayanand Saraswati — "Back to Vedas"; Hindi promotion; Shuddhi movement |
| Ramakrishna Mission | 1897 | Swami Vivekananda — service to man is service to God; Chicago speech 1893 |
| Indian National Congress (INC) | 1885 | A.O. Hume (retired ICS), Dadabhai Naoroji first President; Bombay |
| Muslim League | 1906 | Dhaka; Aga Khan; two-nation theory developed later under Jinnah |
| Indian Association | 1876 | Surendranath Banerjee |
| Poona Sarvajanik Sabha | 1870 | M.G. Ranade |
| Phase/Session | Key Event |
|---|---|
| Moderates (1885–1905) | Constitutional methods; petitions; key leaders: Gokhale, Dadabhai Naoroji, Surendranath Banerjea |
| Surat Split (1907) | Moderates vs Extremists (Tilak, Lal-Bal-Pal); split over Partition of Bengal response |
| Lucknow Pact (1916) | Congress–Muslim League unity; joint electorate compromise |
| Calcutta Session (1920) | Gandhi given leadership; Non-Cooperation Movement launched |
| Lahore Session (1929) | Poorna Swaraj (complete independence) declared; 26 Jan 1930 as Independence Day; Nehru as president |
| Karachi Session (1931) | Fundamental Rights and Economic Policy Resolution; Gandhi-Irwin Pact ratified |
| Haripura Session (1938) | Subhas Chandra Bose elected president; Wardha scheme on education |
| Tripuri Session (1939) | Bose re-elected but resigned; Gandhi opposed; Bose formed Forward Bloc |
| Movement | Year | Key Facts |
|---|---|---|
| Champaran Satyagraha | 1917 | Bihar; tinkathia system — indigo planters; Gandhi's first satyagraha in India |
| Kheda Satyagraha | 1918 | Gujarat; crop failure; no-tax campaign; Patel's first major role |
| Rowlatt Satyagraha | 1919 | Rowlatt Act — detention without trial; Jallianwala Bagh massacre (13 April 1919 — Reginald Dyer); Rabindranath Tagore returned knighthood |
| Non-Cooperation Movement | 1920–1922 | Boycott of government institutions, councils, courts; return of titles; ended after Chauri Chaura (Feb 1922 — mob burned police station, UP) |
| Civil Disobedience Movement | 1930–1934 | Dandi March (12 March–5 April 1930, 390 km, 78 followers); Salt Satyagraha; Poona Pact 1932 (Gandhi–Ambedkar) |
| Individual Satyagraha | 1940 | Selected individuals (Vinoba Bhave first); freedom of speech demand |
| Quit India Movement | 1942 | "Do or Die" — 8 August 1942; Gandhi, Nehru arrested; parallel governments at Satara, Tamluk, Ballia; August Kranti Maidan (Mumbai) |
The Poona Pact (1932) between Gandhi and B.R. Ambedkar replaced separate electorates for depressed classes with reserved seats in joint electorates. The Cripps Mission (1942), Cabinet Mission Plan (1946), and Mountbatten Plan (1947) charted the path to the Indian Independence Act, 1947, which took effect on 15 August 1947.
Non-Cooperation (1920–22) → Civil Disobedience (1930–34) → Quit India (1942) — each escalating pressure on British rule.
Purna Swaraj resolution passed under Jawaharlal Nehru's presidency; 26 January 1930 observed nationwide as "Independence Day."
Between Gandhi and Ambedkar — joint electorates with reserved seats for depressed classes, replacing separate electorates.
Subhas Chandra Bose: "Give me blood, and I shall give you freedom" — rallying cry of the Indian National Army.
Fig. 4.1 — The escalating sequence of Gandhian mass movements, 1917–1942.
| Style | Region | Features | Examples |
|---|---|---|---|
| Nagara (North Indian) | North India | Curved/beehive shikhara; absence of compound wall (originally); amalaka on top; garbhagriha | Khajuraho temples (Chandela), Lingaraj (Bhubaneswar), Konark (Sun Temple) |
| Dravidian (South Indian) | South India | Pyramidal vimana; towering gopuram (gateway tower); large compound walls; water tanks | Brihadeeswara (Thanjavur — Chola), Meenakshi (Madurai), Shore Temple (Pallava) |
| Vesara (Mixed) | Deccan | Mix of Nagara and Dravidian; star-shaped plan | Hoysala temples (Belur, Halebidu), Chalukya temples at Aihole, Badami, Pattadakal |
| Buddhist Architecture | Pan-India | Stupa (relic mound), Chaitya (prayer hall), Vihara (monastery) | Sanchi Stupa (Ashoka; Great Gateway = Satavahana); Ajanta (paintings); Ellora (rock-cut); Amaravati stupa |
| Dance Form | State | Key Features |
|---|---|---|
| Bharatanatyam | Tamil Nadu | Oldest; Devadasi tradition; Abhinaya Darpana; Rukmini Devi Arundale revived it |
| Kathak | UP (North India) | Both Hindu (Bhakti) and Mughal (court) influences; footwork (tatkar); Lucknow and Jaipur gharanas |
| Odissi | Odisha | Tribhangi posture (three bends); devotion to Jagannath; Guru Kelucharan Mohapatra |
| Kuchipudi | Andhra Pradesh | Male performers (Brahmin boys) traditionally; dramatic element; also performed in Telugu-speaking areas |
| Manipuri | Manipur | Ras Leela (Krishna-Radha); soft, graceful; no stamping of feet |
| Kathakali | Kerala | Male performers; elaborate makeup (Chutti); stories from Ramayana and Mahabharata; eye movements |
| Sattriya | Assam | Newest recognised (2000); Vaishnavite; monastery tradition; Srimanta Sankardev |
| Mohiniyattam | Kerala | Female solo; graceful, lyrical; white/cream costume; Lasya style |
| Aspect | Hindustani | Carnatic |
|---|---|---|
| Region | North India | South India |
| Influence | Persian/Mughal influence | Largely untouched by foreign influence |
| Key concept | Raga (melody) + Tala (rhythm); improvisation important | More compositional; Kriti/Kirtan forms |
| Trinity/exponents | Tansen (Mughal court), Amir Khusro, Bhimsen Joshi, Ravi Shankar | Tyagaraja, Muthuswami Dikshitar, Syama Sastri, M.S. Subbulakshmi |
| Instruments | Sitar, Sarod, Tabla, Bansuri, Santoor | Veena, Mridangam, Ghatam, violin |
| Vocal forms | Khayal, Thumri, Dhrupad, Dhamar | Kriti, Varnam, Padam, Javali |
Indian miniature painting traditions include the Mughal, Rajput (Pahari, Rajasthani), and Company styles. Folk and tribal art forms — Madhubani (Bihar), Warli (Maharashtra), Pattachitra (Odisha), Gond (Madhya Pradesh) — carry distinct regional motifs and continue as recognised GI (Geographical Indication)-tagged crafts today.
Nagara = curvilinear shikhara, no gopuram. Dravidian = pyramidal vimana + tall gopuram + boundary wall. Vesara = hybrid, Hoysala temples.
Bharatanatyam (TN), Kathak (UP), Kathakali & Mohiniyattam (Kerala), Kuchipudi (AP), Odissi (Odisha), Manipuri (Manipur), Sattriya (Assam).
Origin: 15th–16th century, founded by Srimanta Sankardeva in Assam; officially recognised as a classical dance form only in 2000.
Khangchendzonga National Park, Sikkim — the sole Indian site recognised for both natural and cultural criteria.
Fig. 5.1 — Nagara, Vesara, and Dravidian temple styles compared by region, key features, and examples.
The Constituent Assembly (1946–49), chaired by Dr. Rajendra Prasad with Dr. B.R. Ambedkar as Chairman of the Drafting Committee, adopted the Constitution on 26 November 1949; it came into force on 26 January 1950 (Republic Day), chosen to commemorate the 1930 Purna Swaraj declaration.
| Amendment | Year | Subject |
|---|---|---|
| 1st | 1951 | Added 9th Schedule; restricted Fundamental Rights for social legislation |
| 7th | 1956 | Reorganised states on linguistic basis (States Reorganisation Act 1956); abolished Part B states |
| 42nd | 1976 | "Mini Constitution"; Emergency era; added Socialist, Secular, Integrity to Preamble; DPSP over FR; added Fundamental Duties (Art 51A) |
| 44th | 1978 | Restored some rights curtailed in 42nd; Right to Property removed from FR (Art 19/31) → Art 300A (legal right) |
| 52nd | 1985 | Anti-defection law (10th Schedule) |
| 61st | 1988 | Voting age 21 → 18 |
| 73rd | 1992 | Panchayati Raj (Part IX); 11th Schedule; 3-tier; reservations for women/SC/ST |
| 74th | 1992 | Urban Local Bodies (Part IX-A); 12th Schedule; Nagarpalika/Municipal Corporation |
| 86th | 2002 | Right to Education (Art 21A); 6–14 years; also added Art 51A(k) duty of parents |
| 101st | 2016 | Goods and Services Tax (GST) |
| 103rd | 2019 | 10% EWS (Economically Weaker Section) reservation in education and public employment |
| State | Issue | Resolution |
|---|---|---|
| Junagadh | Muslim ruler, Hindu-majority population, acceded to Pakistan | Plebiscite (1948) confirmed accession to India |
| Hyderabad | Nizam sought independence | "Operation Polo" (Sept 1948) — military action integrated it into India |
| Jammu & Kashmir | Hindu ruler, Muslim-majority population, invasion by Pakistani tribesmen | Maharaja Hari Singh signed Instrument of Accession (Oct 1947); Article 370 granted special status |
The States Reorganisation Act, 1956 redrew state boundaries along linguistic lines, following the recommendations of the States Reorganisation Commission (Fazl Ali Commission) — itself prompted by the Andhra agitation and the death of Potti Sriramulu.
Adopted 26 Nov 1949 → Enforced 26 Jan 1950 (Republic Day) — chosen to honour the 1930 Purna Swaraj pledge.
Junagadh (plebiscite), Hyderabad (Operation Polo, 1948), Jammu & Kashmir (Instrument of Accession, Oct 1947, Article 370).
42nd (1976, Mini Constitution) · 44th (1978, reversal) · 73rd/74th (1992, Panchayati Raj/Urban bodies) · 101st (2016, GST).
Five-Year Plans from 1951 → Green Revolution (late 1960s, Swaminathan) → 1991 LPG reforms (Narasimha Rao–Manmohan Singh) → NITI Aayog (2015).
Fig. 6.1 — Five milestones charting India's political and economic consolidation, 1947–2016.
The Mains GS-I syllabus covers world events from the 18th century onward — the Industrial Revolution, the World Wars, the redrawal of national boundaries, colonisation and decolonisation, and political philosophies such as capitalism, socialism and communism, with their forms and effects on society.
| Event | Significance |
|---|---|
| Industrial Revolution (c. 1760 onward, Britain) | Shift from hand production to machines and factories; urbanisation, capitalism, a new working class, and the demand for raw materials/markets that fuelled imperialism |
| American Revolution (1776) | Thirteen colonies won independence from Britain; first modern written constitution and a republic based on popular sovereignty |
| French Revolution (1789) | "Liberty, Equality, Fraternity"; overthrew monarchy and feudal privilege; spread nationalism and democratic ideals across Europe |
The wars caused a wholesale redrawal of national boundaries — new states in Europe and the Middle East after WWI, and a divided Germany/Europe and decolonising Asia and Africa after WWII.
Colonisation saw European powers dominate Asia, Africa and the Americas for raw materials and markets; decolonisation after WWII (India 1947, and much of Africa through the 1950s–60s) dismantled these empires as nationalist movements and a weakened Europe combined. Competing political philosophies shaped the century:
| Ideology | Core idea |
|---|---|
| Capitalism | Private ownership and market-driven production and exchange |
| Socialism | Social/collective ownership of the means of production; reduced inequality |
| Communism | Classless, stateless society with common ownership (Marx); realised via the 1917 Russian Revolution |
| Fascism / Nazism | Authoritarian ultranationalism (Italy, Germany) that helped precipitate WWII |
The Mains GS-I syllabus devotes a distinct block to Indian society — its salient features and diversity, the role of women, population and urbanisation issues, social divisions such as communalism and regionalism, secularism, and the effects of globalisation.
Indian society is marked by "unity in diversity" — a plurality of languages, religions, castes, ethnic groups and regions held together by a shared civilisational and constitutional framework. Institutions of family, kinship, caste and religion shape social life, even as they evolve with modernisation.
Communalism (antagonism organised around religious identity) and regionalism (assertion of regional identity/interests) challenge national integration; secularism — the Indian model of equal respect for all religions ("Sarva Dharma Sambhava") — is the constitutional response. Globalisation has reshaped Indian society: new consumption patterns and opportunities alongside concerns over inequality, cultural change and pressure on traditional livelihoods.
Plassey (1757) → Buxar (1764) → Treaty of Allahabad (1765) — 8 years to formal Diwani rights over Bengal, Bihar, Odisha.
Lord Cornwallis, Bengal, 1793 — fixed revenue with zamindars in perpetuity.
Lord Dalhousie (1848–56); annexed Satara, Jhansi, Nagpur among others for lack of natural male heir.
Meerut, 10 May 1857 — often called India's "First War of Independence."
1885, A.O. Hume, first session at Bombay.
1929 — Purna Swaraj resolution; 26 Jan 1930 observed as Independence Day.
1917 — Gandhi's first satyagraha in India, against indigo planters in Bihar.
Feb 1922 — violence here led Gandhi to call off the Non-Cooperation Movement.
March–April 1930 — launched the Civil Disobedience Movement; ~390 km on foot.
1942 — "Do or Die"; Gandhi and top leaders arrested on 9 August 1942.
1932 — between Gandhi and Ambedkar; joint electorates with reserved seats.
15 August 1947 — Indian Independence Act, 1947 took effect.
Nagara = curvilinear shikhara, no gopuram (North). Dravidian = pyramidal vimana + gopuram + boundary wall (South).
Assam; founded 15th–16th century by Srimanta Sankardeva; recognised classical in 2000.
Khangchendzonga National Park, Sikkim.
Sept 1948 — integrated Hyderabad into the Indian Union.
Oct 1947 — Maharaja Hari Singh signs Instrument of Accession; Article 370.
Adopted 26 Nov 1949 → enforced 26 Jan 1950 (Republic Day).
1992 — constitutional status to Panchayati Raj (rural) and Urban Local Bodies respectively.
1976 — "Mini Constitution"; added Fundamental Duties and "Socialist, Secular, Integrity" to the Preamble.
Late 1960s — M.S. Swaminathan; food-deficit to food-surplus in wheat and rice.
Narasimha Rao–Manmohan Singh; Liberalisation, Privatisation, Globalisation.
Rakhigarhi (Haryana) is the largest IVC site in India; Mohenjo-daro is the largest overall (including Pakistan).
Bihar; established 5th century CE (Gupta period); destroyed by Bakhtiyar Khilji in 1193
1526: Babur def. Ibrahim Lodi. 1556: Akbar def. Hemu. 1761: Ahmad Shah Abdali def. Marathas.
Mohan Singh founded the INA; Subhas Chandra Bose reorganised it; Lakshmi Sahgal led the Rani of Jhansi Regiment.
Thanjavur; Dravidian style; built by Chola ruler Raja Raja Chola I.
| Topic | Prelims Focus | Mains GS-I Focus |
|---|---|---|
| Ancient India | IVC sites, Vedic terms, Mauryan/Gupta rulers | State formation and socio-religious change |
| Medieval India | Dynasty-ruler-event matching; Bhakti/Sufi saints | Syncretic culture and administrative innovations |
| Modern India | Treaty/act years; Governor-General matching | Colonial economic policy and its long-term impact |
| Freedom Struggle | Movement-year-outcome matching; Congress sessions | Evolution of nationalism: moderate to mass movements |
| Art & Culture | Dance-state matching; temple style features; UNESCO sites | Cultural continuity and regional diversity |
| Post-Independence | Amendment-year matching; state integration facts | Nation-building, federalism, and economic reform trajectories |
Q1. The Battle of Plassey was in 1757 and the Treaty of Allahabad (Diwani rights) was in 1765. How many years passed between the two?
Q2. Which Congress session (1929) passed the "Purna Swaraj" resolution, and under whose presidency?
Q3. Which state is Sattriya dance associated with, and via which saint-scholar?
Q4. On what date was Gandhi arrested at the start of the Quit India Movement?
Q5. India has 41+ non-Mixed UNESCO World Heritage Sites and exactly 1 Mixed site. Name the Mixed site.