Indian Polity is the single highest-scoring section of UPSC CSE Prelims and forms the backbone of Mains GS Paper II. This module spans the Constitution's making and sources, Fundamental Rights and writs, DPSP and Fundamental Duties, Parliament's composition and legislative process, the Executive (President, PM, Governor), and the Judiciary alongside key constitutional bodies — with every article number, amendment, and case citation carried over, plus worked examples and diagrams for each topic.
After studying this chapter you will be able to:
Polity has no strict subject prerequisite, but it connects closely with Indian History (constitutional amendments, integration of princely states) and Indian Economy (Finance Commission, RBI, fiscal federalism). Once you've worked through the chapters below, head to the Indian Polity hub page to generate practice tests, or explore Study Material for other UPSC CSE subjects.
The Constitution of India came into force on 26 January 1950 — Republic Day. It is the world's longest written constitution. The Constituent Assembly framed it from December 1946 to November 1949 under Dr B.R. Ambedkar as Chairman of the Drafting Committee.
| Source Country | Features Borrowed |
|---|---|
| UK (British) | Parliamentary system; rule of law; single citizenship; Cabinet system; writ jurisdiction; Speaker |
| USA | Fundamental Rights; independent judiciary; judicial review; impeachment; removal of Supreme Court judges; Preamble inspiration |
| Ireland | Directive Principles of State Policy; Nomination to Rajya Sabha; method of President's election |
| Canada | Federal system with strong centre; residuary powers with Centre; Advisory jurisdiction of Supreme Court |
| Australia | Concurrent List; joint sitting of Parliament; freedom of trade and commerce |
| Germany (Weimar) | Suspension of Fundamental Rights during Emergency |
| South Africa | Amendment procedure (Art 368); election of Rajya Sabha members |
| USSR (Soviet) | Fundamental Duties; Five Year Plans |
| Japan | Procedure established by law (Art 21) |
| France | Liberty, Equality, Fraternity in Preamble; Republic |
| Government of India Act 1935 | Federal structure; Governor; judiciary; Public Service Commissions; Emergency provisions |
| Schedule | Subject |
|---|---|
| 1st | Names of states and UTs with territories |
| 2nd | Salaries of President, Governors, judges, etc. |
| 3rd | Forms of oaths and affirmations |
| 4th | Allocation of Rajya Sabha seats |
| 5th | Administration of Scheduled Areas (tribal) |
| 6th | Administration of Tribal Areas in NE India (Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura, Mizoram) |
| 7th | Division of powers — Union List (100 subjects), State List (61), Concurrent List (52) |
| 8th | 22 official languages |
| 9th | Laws protected from judicial review (added by 1st Amendment 1951) |
| 10th | Anti-defection provisions (52nd Amendment 1985) |
| 11th | Powers of Panchayati Raj (29 subjects) |
| 12th | Powers of Municipalities (18 subjects) |
First meeting 9 Dec 1946 → Adopted 26 Nov 1949 → Enforced 26 Jan 1950
Original: 395 articles, 8 schedules. Currently: 448 articles, 12 schedules, 25 parts.
Government of India Act 1935 — federal structure, Governor, judiciary, PSCs, Emergency provisions
"Mini Constitution" — added Socialist, Secular, Integrity to Preamble + Fundamental Duties
Given: The Directive Principles of State Policy (DPSP) and the method of the President's election were both borrowed from which country's constitution?
Solution: Ireland is the source for both DPSP and the President's election method (proportional representation via single transferable vote), alongside the nomination system for Rajya Sabha.
Answer: Ireland.
Given: Which single Act contributed the largest number of provisions to the Indian Constitution, including federal structure, Governor's office, and Public Service Commissions?
Solution: Among all sources, the Government of India Act 1935 is the single largest contributor, providing the federal structure, judiciary, Governor's office, PSCs, and Emergency provisions.
Answer: Government of India Act 1935.
Given: Can Parliament amend the Preamble to remove the word "Secular"?
Solution: The Kesavananda Bharati case (1973) held that the Preamble is part of the Constitution and can be amended under Art 368, but any amendment cannot alter the Constitution's basic structure — secularism is considered part of that basic structure.
Answer: No — removing "Secular" would violate the basic structure doctrine.
Fig. 1.1 — Key milestones from the Constituent Assembly's first meeting to the Constitution coming into force.
Fundamental Rights (Part III, Articles 12–35) are justiciable rights guaranteed to citizens (and some to all persons). They are enforceable by courts. Originally 7, now 6 after Right to Property was removed (44th Amendment 1978).
| Right | Articles | Key Provisions |
|---|---|---|
| Right to Equality | 14–18 | Art 14: equality before law + equal protection; Art 15: no discrimination on religion/race/caste/sex/place of birth; Art 16: equal opportunity in public employment; Art 17: abolition of untouchability; Art 18: abolition of titles (except military/academic) |
| Right to Freedom | 19–22 | Art 19: 6 freedoms (speech, assembly, association, movement, residence, profession); Art 20: protection in conviction; Art 21: protection of life and liberty; Art 21A: Right to Education (6–14 years); Art 22: protection against arbitrary arrest |
| Right against Exploitation | 23–24 | Art 23: prohibition of traffic in human beings and forced labour; Art 24: prohibition of child labour (factories/hazardous, under 14) |
| Right to Freedom of Religion | 25–28 | Art 25: freedom of conscience and religion (subject to public order, morality, health); Art 26: manage religious affairs; Art 27: no tax for promotion of any religion; Art 28: no religious instruction in state-aided schools |
| Cultural and Educational Rights | 29–30 | Art 29: protection of interests of minorities (language/script/culture); Art 30: right of minorities to establish and administer educational institutions |
| Right to Constitutional Remedies | 32 | Dr Ambedkar: "Heart and soul of Constitution"; right to move Supreme Court for enforcement; Dr Ambedkar called Art 32 most important FR |
| Writ | Meaning | Used Against | Purpose |
|---|---|---|---|
| Habeas Corpus | "Produce the body" | Any person/authority | Challenges unlawful detention; secures release |
| Mandamus | "We command" | Public authority/inferior court | Compels performance of public/statutory duty |
| Prohibition | "To forbid" | Inferior courts/tribunals only | Prevents inferior court from exceeding jurisdiction |
| Certiorari | "To be certified" | Inferior courts/tribunals only | Quashes order of inferior court acting without/excess jurisdiction |
| Quo Warranto | "By what authority" | Person holding public office | Challenges person's right to hold public office |
Equality (14–18) · Freedom (19–22) · Against Exploitation (23–24) · Freedom of Religion (25–28) · Cultural & Educational (29–30) · Constitutional Remedies (32)
Habeas Corpus, Mandamus, Prohibition, Certiorari, Quo Warranto — Art 32 (SC) and Art 226 (HC)
Maneka Gandhi (1978) — fair/just/reasonable procedure; Puttaswamy (2017) — Right to Privacy
Removed from FR by 44th Amendment (1978) → now Art 300A, a legal right only
Given: A person is detained by police without following due legal process. Which writ can be used to challenge this detention, and against whom can it be issued?
Solution: Habeas Corpus ("produce the body") is used to challenge unlawful detention and, uniquely among the five writs, can be issued against any person or authority — not just the state.
Answer: Habeas Corpus.
Given: Why can a person approach a High Court under Art 226 for a matter that is not a Fundamental Rights violation, but cannot approach the Supreme Court under Art 32 for the same?
Solution: Article 32 is itself a Fundamental Right and can only be invoked for enforcement of Fundamental Rights. Article 226 is a constitutional (not fundamental) power of the High Courts with wider scope, covering both FR violations and "any other purpose."
Answer: Art 226 has broader scope than Art 32, which is restricted to Fundamental Rights enforcement.
Given: Which landmark Supreme Court case declared the Right to Privacy a Fundamental Right, and under which article?
Solution: K.S. Puttaswamy vs Union of India (2017), decided by a 9-judge bench, held that the Right to Privacy is intrinsic to the Right to Life and Personal Liberty under Article 21.
Answer: K.S. Puttaswamy vs Union of India (2017) — Article 21.
Fig. 2.1 — The five writs: Habeas Corpus, Mandamus, and Quo Warranto (any authority) versus Prohibition and Certiorari (inferior courts/tribunals only).
DPSPs (Part IV, Articles 36–51) are non-justiciable guidelines for the state. Fundamental Duties (Art 51A, Part IV-A) were added by 42nd Amendment. UPSC tests the distinction between FR and DPSP, and classification of DPSPs.
| Feature | Fundamental Rights (FR) | DPSP |
|---|---|---|
| Justiciability | Justiciable — courts can enforce | Non-justiciable — courts cannot enforce |
| Nature | Negative obligations (state must NOT do) | Positive obligations (state SHOULD do) |
| Part | Part III (Art 12–35) | Part IV (Art 36–51) |
| Source | US Constitution (Bill of Rights) | Irish Constitution (Directive Principles) |
| Relationship | If conflict, FR prevail (generally); but some DPSP (Art 39) override FR 14, 19 (42nd Am) | — |
| Type | Articles | Examples |
|---|---|---|
| Socialistic (welfare state) | 38, 39, 39A, 41, 42, 43, 43A, 47 | Equal pay for equal work (Art 39d); free legal aid (39A); right to work (41); living wage (43); participation in management (43A); prohibition of liquor (47) |
| Gandhian (rural/social) | 40, 43, 43B, 46, 47, 48 | Village Panchayats (40); cottage industries (43); SC/ST upliftment (46); prohibition (47); cow slaughter ban (48) |
| Liberal/Intellectual | 44, 45, 48A, 49, 50, 51 | Uniform Civil Code (44); early childhood care (45); environment protection (48A); national monuments (49); separation of judiciary from executive (50); international peace (51) |
| Article | Provision |
|---|---|
| Art 39A | Free legal aid and equal justice (43rd Amendment 1977 added this) |
| Art 40 | Organisation of village panchayats (Gandhian) |
| Art 44 | Uniform Civil Code (UCC) — most controversial DPSP |
| Art 48 | Organisation of agriculture and animal husbandry; ban on cow slaughter |
| Art 48A | Protection and improvement of environment; safeguard forests and wildlife (44th Amendment 1978) |
| Art 50 | Separation of judiciary from executive (in public services) |
The Constitution and statutes create mechanisms, laws and institutions to protect and uplift vulnerable sections (SCs, STs, OBCs, women, children, minorities, persons with disabilities):
| Body | Status | Mandate |
|---|---|---|
| National Commission for SCs | Constitutional (Art 338) | Investigate & monitor safeguards for Scheduled Castes |
| National Commission for STs | Constitutional (Art 338A) | Safeguards for Scheduled Tribes (89th Amendment 2003) |
| National Commission for BCs | Constitutional (Art 338B) | Backward Classes (102nd Amendment 2018) |
| National Commission for Women | Statutory (1990 Act) | Safeguard women's rights & interests |
| National Commission for Minorities | Statutory (1992 Act) | Protect minority rights |
Constitutional safeguards include reservation in legislatures, education and public employment (Arts 15(4), 16(4), 330, 332, 335), abolition of untouchability (Art 17), and protective laws such as the SC/ST (Prevention of Atrocities) Act. Welfare schemes for these groups (scholarships, pensions, skilling, financial inclusion) are delivered by the Centre and States and evaluated on reach, leakage and outcome — the practical test of the safeguards above.
Socialistic (38, 39, 41–43A, 47) · Gandhian (40, 43, 43B, 46–48) · Liberal (44, 45, 48A–51)
11 duties — 10 original (42nd Amendment 1976) + 1 added by 86th Amendment (2002)
FR = justiciable, negative obligations, Part III. DPSP = non-justiciable, positive obligations, Part IV.
Art 39A (legal aid, 1977) · Art 44 (UCC) · Art 48A (environment, 1978) · Art 50 (judiciary-executive separation)
Given: Under which category of DPSPs does Article 40 (organisation of village panchayats) fall?
Solution: Article 40 reflects Gandhian ideals of village self-governance and rural development, placing it under the Gandhian classification of DPSPs alongside cottage industries (Art 43) and SC/ST upliftment (Art 46).
Answer: Gandhian DPSP.
Given: Article 48A (protection of environment and wildlife) was added to the Constitution by which amendment?
Solution: Article 48A was added by the 44th Amendment (1978) — commonly confused with the 42nd Amendment, which added Fundamental Duties and the words "Socialist, Secular, Integrity" to the Preamble.
Answer: 44th Amendment (1978).
Given: A citizen wants to legally challenge the state for not providing a living wage (Art 43, a DPSP). Can the courts enforce this?
Solution: DPSPs are non-justiciable — courts cannot directly enforce them, unlike Fundamental Rights. However, DPSPs guide state policy and courts often use them to interpret the scope of Fundamental Rights.
Answer: No — DPSPs like Art 43 are non-justiciable and cannot be directly enforced in court.
Fig. 3.1 — Socialistic, Gandhian, and Liberal/Intellectual classifications of DPSPs with representative articles.
Parliament (Part V, Articles 79–122) comprises the President, Lok Sabha (Lower House), and Rajya Sabha (Upper House). UPSC tests composition, powers, types of bills, joint sittings, and presiding officers.
| Feature | Lok Sabha | Rajya Sabha |
|---|---|---|
| Maximum strength | 552 (530 states + 20 UTs + 2 Anglo-Indian nominated — now discontinued by 104th Amendment 2020) | 250 (238 elected + 12 nominated by President) |
| Current strength | 543 elected | 245 |
| Term | 5 years (can be dissolved by President on PM's advice) | Permanent body; 1/3 retire every 2 years; member term = 6 years |
| Presiding Officer | Speaker (Deputy Speaker); both elected by members | Chairman = Vice-President ex-officio; Deputy Chairman elected by members |
| Qualifications | Citizen; 25 years; voter; not bankrupt, convicted, or unsound mind | Citizen; 30 years; qualifications similar |
| Special powers | Money Bills (Art 110); vote of no-confidence; joint sitting presided by Speaker | Declare state subject of national importance (Art 249); remove VP; ratify emergency (Art 356) |
| Bill Type | Definition | Joint Sitting? | Rajya Sabha can delay? |
|---|---|---|---|
| Ordinary Bill | Any bill other than Money/Constitution Bill | Yes (Art 108) | Yes — up to 6 months delay → joint sitting |
| Money Bill (Art 110) | Taxation, borrowing, withdrawal from CFI; certified by Speaker | No — Rajya Sabha has 14 days only; Lok Sabha can accept/reject RS suggestions | Only 14 days |
| Financial Bill | Contains money provisions but not purely a Money Bill | Depends on type | Depends |
| Constitutional Amendment Bill (Art 368) | Amendment of Constitution | No | Can reject or not pass — must be passed by both Houses separately |
The conduct of elections is governed by two statutes enacted under Articles 327–328:
Lok Sabha: max 552, current 543. Rajya Sabha: max 250, current 245.
Originates only in Lok Sabha; Rajya Sabha has 14 days; certified by Speaker.
Only for Ordinary Bills deadlocked between Houses; presided by Speaker.
10th Schedule; added by 52nd Amendment (1985); exception for 2/3 merger.
Given: A bill dealing purely with taxation is introduced in Lok Sabha. Can the Rajya Sabha reject it or delay it indefinitely?
Solution: A taxation bill certified by the Speaker as a Money Bill (Art 110) can only originate in the Lok Sabha. The Rajya Sabha has only 14 days to return it with recommendations, which the Lok Sabha may accept or reject — it cannot reject or indefinitely delay a Money Bill.
Answer: No — Rajya Sabha can only delay a Money Bill by up to 14 days.
Given: An Ordinary Bill is passed by Lok Sabha but rejected by Rajya Sabha. What is the resolution mechanism, and who presides?
Solution: Under Article 108, if an Ordinary Bill is deadlocked between the two Houses, the President may summon a joint sitting, which is presided over by the Speaker of the Lok Sabha and decided by simple majority of members present and voting from both Houses combined.
Answer: Joint sitting under Art 108, presided by the Speaker.
Given: Two-thirds of a party's members decide to merge with another political party. Are they disqualified under the anti-defection law?
Solution: The 10th Schedule (added by the 52nd Amendment, 1985) disqualifies members who voluntarily give up party membership or vote against a party whip — but explicitly exempts a merger where two-thirds of the original party's members agree to merge with another party.
Answer: No — a two-thirds merger is exempt from disqualification under the 10th Schedule.
Fig. 4.1 — Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha compared by strength, term, presiding officer, and special powers.
India has a parliamentary executive — President is the constitutional head; Prime Minister is the real executive. UPSC frequently tests President's powers (discretionary vs constitutional), gubernatorial role, and differences with a parliamentary system.
| Feature | Details |
|---|---|
| Election | Indirect; by elected members of Parliament (Lok Sabha + Rajya Sabha) + state legislative assemblies; not Rajya Sabha nominated, not Legislative Councils |
| Method | Single Transferable Vote (STV) with proportional representation; weighted votes; parity between states and union |
| Term | 5 years; eligible for re-election; Dr Rajendra Prasad elected twice |
| Qualifications | Indian citizen; 35 years; eligible for Lok Sabha; not holding office of profit |
| Removal | Impeachment (Art 61); by Parliament; 2/3 majority + 14 days notice; only for violation of Constitution; India's only President impeached = none yet |
| Salary | ₹5 lakh/month (revised 2018); charged to Consolidated Fund of India |
| Power Type | Details |
|---|---|
| Legislative | Summon/prorogue Parliament; dissolve Lok Sabha; address joint sitting; Ordinance (Art 123) when Parliament not in session; assent to bills |
| Executive | Appoints PM, Council of Ministers, Governors, AG, CAG, CEC, SC judges, heads of commissions |
| Judicial / Pardoning (Art 72) | Pardon (complete forgiveness), Commutation (reduce sentence), Remission (reduce without changing nature), Respite (lesser sentence due to special circumstances), Reprieve (temporary suspension) |
| Veto | Absolute (pocket) veto on private member bills; suspensive veto (send back once); no veto on Money Bills |
| Emergency | National Emergency Art 352; President's Rule Art 356; Financial Emergency Art 360 |
| Discretionary | Appointment of PM when no clear majority; return a bill; dissolve Lok Sabha if PM loses majority; refuse to call a session |
Indirect; STV with proportional representation; elected MPs + elected MLAs (not nominated members)
Pardon, Commutation, Remission, Respite, Reprieve
Both Houses of Parliament only (elected + nominated members); no state assembly votes
Nominal 5 years; actually holds office "during the pleasure of the President"
Given: Do state Legislative Assembly members vote in the election of the Vice-President?
Solution: The President is elected by an electoral college of elected members of both Houses of Parliament plus elected members of State Legislative Assemblies. The Vice-President, however, is elected only by members of both Houses of Parliament (including nominated members) — state assemblies play no role.
Answer: No — only Parliament (both Houses) votes for the Vice-President.
Given: A prisoner's death sentence is reduced to life imprisonment. Which specific pardoning power under Article 72 does this represent?
Solution: Reducing a death sentence to a lesser sentence (life imprisonment) without changing its nature is "Commutation" — distinct from "Remission" (reducing the period without changing the sentence's nature) or full "Pardon" (complete forgiveness).
Answer: Commutation.
Given: After a state election produces no clear majority, who has the discretion to decide which party leader to invite as Chief Minister?
Solution: The Governor exercises discretionary power in appointing the Chief Minister when no single party has a clear majority — this is one of the Governor's recognised discretionary powers under Articles 153–162.
Answer: The Governor.
Fig. 5.1 — The five pardoning powers of the President under Article 72: Pardon, Commutation, Remission, Respite, and Reprieve.
India's judiciary is independent with Supreme Court at apex. Constitutional bodies — Election Commission, CAG, UPSC, Finance Commission — are tested extensively in UPSC Prelims alongside their composition and powers.
| Feature | Details |
|---|---|
| Establishment | 26 January 1950; originally in Parliament building; shifted to present building 1958 |
| Composition | Chief Justice of India + up to 33 judges (increased from 30 by 2019 amendment); 34 total currently |
| Appointment | By President; collegium system (CJI + 4 senior-most judges) — NJAC struck down by Supreme Court 2015 |
| Tenure | Until age 65; no reappointment; can be removed by Parliament (impeachment, 2/3 majority) |
| Jurisdiction | Original (disputes between states/centre); Appellate (civil/criminal/constitutional); Advisory (Art 143 President's reference); Writ (Art 32 FR enforcement) |
| Judicial Review | Power to declare laws unconstitutional if violating Constitution; not explicitly stated but implied (Art 13) |
| Body | Article | Key Features |
|---|---|---|
| Comptroller & Auditor General (CAG) | Art 148 | Audits all Centre/State accounts; reports to President/Governor; 6 years or 65; removed like SC judge; guardian of public purse |
| Union Public Service Commission (UPSC) | Art 315 | All India Services + Central Services; Chairman + members appointed by President; 6 years or 65; removed by President (not Parliament) |
| Finance Commission | Art 280 | Every 5 years; recommends share of central taxes to states + grants; 16th Finance Commission (2026–31) headed by Arvind Panagariya (2024) |
| Attorney General | Art 76 | Chief law officer of India; represents GoI in SC; appointed by President; not a member of Cabinet; can practise privately |
| National Commission for SC | Art 338 | Investigates safeguards for Scheduled Castes; reports to President |
| Emergency | Article | Grounds | Effect |
|---|---|---|---|
| National Emergency | 352 | War, external aggression, armed rebellion (44th Am replaced "internal disturbance") | FR except 20, 21 suspended; federal structure becomes unitary; State Lists → Parliament legislates |
| President's Rule | 356 | Constitutional machinery failed in state | Governor administers; state legislature dissolved/suspended; approved by Parliament every 6 months; max 3 years |
| Financial Emergency | 360 | Financial stability or credit of India threatened | Centre can give financial directions to states; reduce salaries; never imposed so far |
CJI + up to 33 judges (raised from 30 by 2019 amendment); appointed via collegium system
Kesavananda Bharati v. State of Kerala (1973) — 13-judge bench, 7:6 majority
National (Art 352) · President's Rule (Art 356) · Financial (Art 360, never proclaimed)
CEC + 2 Election Commissioners (3 total) after the 2023 Act
Given: Can Parliament pass a constitutional amendment abolishing judicial review entirely?
Solution: Judicial review is listed as part of the "basic structure" of the Constitution as established in Kesavananda Bharati v. State of Kerala (1973). While Parliament can amend the Constitution under Art 368, it cannot alter or destroy elements of the basic structure.
Answer: No — abolishing judicial review would violate the basic structure doctrine.
Given: Before the 44th Amendment, what ground (later removed) could justify a National Emergency, and why was it controversial?
Solution: Before the 44th Amendment (1978), "internal disturbance" was a valid ground for National Emergency under Art 352 — this vague term was used to justify the 1975 Emergency and was replaced with the narrower "armed rebellion" to prevent misuse.
Answer: "Internal disturbance" — replaced by "armed rebellion" via the 44th Amendment to prevent misuse.
Given: How is the Comptroller and Auditor General (CAG) removed from office, and to whom does the CAG report?
Solution: The CAG (Art 148) can only be removed in the same manner as a Supreme Court judge — via a Parliamentary impeachment process — and the CAG's reports are submitted to the President (for the Centre) or the Governor (for states), not directly to Parliament or state legislatures.
Answer: Removed like an SC judge (impeachment); reports to the President/Governor.
Fig. 6.1 — National Emergency, President's Rule, and Financial Emergency compared by article, grounds, and historical use.
The Mains GS-II syllabus covers India's foreign relations: its neighbourhood, the bilateral/regional/global groupings it belongs to, the effect of other countries' policies on India's interests, the Indian diaspora, and the major international institutions.
India's "Neighbourhood First" policy prioritises stable, connected relations with immediate neighbours, complemented by "Act East" (ASEAN and the Indo-Pacific) and the SAGAR vision ("Security and Growth for All in the Region") for the maritime neighbourhood.
| Neighbour | Key issues / cooperation |
|---|---|
| Pakistan | Terrorism, Kashmir, Indus Waters Treaty; largely stalled dialogue |
| China | Boundary dispute (LAC), trade deficit, BRI concerns; managed competition |
| Nepal | Open border, hydropower, roti-beti ties; periodic boundary friction |
| Bangladesh | Land Boundary Agreement, trade, connectivity, water sharing (Teesta pending) |
| Sri Lanka | Fishermen issue, Tamil reconciliation, economic assistance, port geopolitics |
| Bhutan & Maldives | Close strategic partners; hydropower (Bhutan); "India First" (Maldives) |
| Grouping | Nature |
|---|---|
| SAARC | South Asian regional body (8 members); largely dormant due to India–Pakistan tensions |
| BIMSTEC | Bay of Bengal grouping (South + Southeast Asia); India's preferred regional platform |
| ASEAN | Southeast Asian bloc; central to India's Act East policy |
| SCO | Shanghai Cooperation Organisation; security/connectivity in Eurasia |
| BRICS | Brazil, Russia, India, China, South Africa (plus new members); emerging-economy voice |
| QUAD | India, US, Japan, Australia; free and open Indo-Pacific |
| G20 | Premier forum for global economic cooperation (India hosted the 2023 summit) |
The Indian diaspora (largest in the world) is a source of remittances, soft power and investment; engagement is fostered through Pravasi Bharatiya Divas and OCI provisions. Important international institutions India engages with include the United Nations and its bodies (India seeks permanent UNSC membership), and the economic/technical bodies IMF, World Bank, WTO, WHO, IAEA and multilateral development banks.
26 November 1949; came into force 26 January 1950
Dr B.R. Ambedkar
Dr Rajendra Prasad
Government of India Act 1935
Irish Constitution
US Constitution (Bill of Rights)
42nd Amendment 1976
42nd Amendment 1976; 11th duty — 86th Amendment 2002
Removed from FR by 44th Amendment 1978 → Art 300A (legal right)
"Heart and soul of the Constitution"
"Produce the body" — challenges unlawful detention — any person/authority
Challenges person's right to hold public office
President/Governor; private individuals
Uniform Civil Code (UCC) — DPSP
Environment protection — DPSP (44th Amendment)
Only in Lok Sabha; Rajya Sabha has 14 days; certified by Speaker
Art 108; only for Ordinary Bills; presided by Speaker
10th Schedule; 52nd Amendment 1985
Both Houses + state assemblies elected members (not nominated, not Council)
Both Houses only (no state assemblies)
At pleasure of President (no fixed term in practice)
6 weeks after Parliament reassembles; Art 123
Kesavananda Bharati 1973; Parliament cannot alter basic structure
Art 360; never proclaimed
War, external aggression, armed rebellion (after 44th Am)
CEC + Election Commissioners; currently 3 (2023 Act)
Every 5 years; Art 280
| Topic | Prelims Focus | Mains GS-II Focus |
|---|---|---|
| Constitution | Sources, articles, schedules, Preamble | Constitutional philosophy and evolution of federalism |
| Fundamental Rights | Article-writ matching, judicial expansions | Balance between FR and state interests; landmark judgments |
| DPSP & Duties | Classification, article numbers, amendments | FR-DPSP harmony; role of duties in governance |
| Parliament | Bill types, sessions, anti-defection facts | Legislative process and parliamentary accountability |
| Executive | President/Governor powers, election methods | Executive-legislature relations; discretionary powers |
| Judiciary | SC composition, writs, constitutional bodies | Judicial review, basic structure, judicial independence |
Q1. The Constitution was adopted on 26 November 1949 and came into force on 26 January 1950. How many days elapsed between adoption and enforcement?
Q2. The original Constitution had 395 articles and 8 schedules. It currently has 448 articles and 12 schedules. How many schedules have been added?
Q3. The Rajya Sabha has a maximum strength of 250, with 1/3 of members retiring every 2 years. Roughly how many members retire in each cycle?
Q4. The 42nd Amendment was in 1976 and the 44th Amendment was in 1978. How many years apart were these two amendments, which are often confused with each other?
Q5. The Supreme Court's sanctioned strength was raised from 30 to 33 judges (plus the CJI = 34 total). By how many judges did the sanctioned strength increase?