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History, Art & Culture – Complete Study Notes

UPSC CSE Prelims Mains GS I

Complete Study Notes for UPSC CSE Prelims GS Paper I

Ch 1 · Ancient India Ch 2 · Medieval India Ch 3 · Modern India Ch 4 · Freedom Struggle Ch 5 · Art & Culture Ch 6 · Post-Independence Quick Revision

1Ancient India►

Ancient India spans from the Indus Valley Civilisation (~3300 BCE) to the end of the Gupta Empire (~550 CE). This period is regularly tested in UPSC Prelims, especially Indus Valley, Vedic period, Buddhism, Jainism, and the Maurya–Gupta empires.

Indus Valley Civilisation (IVC) — ~3300–1300 BCE

Aspect	Key Facts
Major sites	Harappa (Punjab, Pakistan), Mohenjo-daro (Sindh, Pakistan), Dholavira (Gujarat), Lothal (Gujarat — dock), Kalibangan (Rajasthan), Rakhigarhi (Haryana — largest IVC site in India)
Script	Undeciphered; pictographic; written right to left (boustrophedon)
Economy	Trade-based; no coins; bartered; traded with Mesopotamia (Sumer)
Religion	Mother goddess worship; Proto-Shiva (Pashupati seal); no temple structures found
Town planning	Grid pattern; citadel (upper town) + lower town; great bath at Mohenjo-daro; granaries at Harappa; drainage system
Decline	Multiple theories: Aryan invasion (discarded), climate change, river drying (Ghaggar-Hakra = ancient Saraswati)
Notable finds	Bronze dancing girl; priest-king statue; Pashupati seal; unicorn seals; weights and measures (binary: 1,2,4,8,16)

Vedic Period

Period	Features
Early Vedic (Rigvedic) ~1500–1000 BCE	Indo-Gangetic plains settled; tribal society (jana, vis, grama); Indra most important god; pastoral/agricultural; no cities; Sabha and Samiti assemblies
Later Vedic ~1000–600 BCE	Eastward expansion; agriculture dominant; varna system hardened (Brahmin, Kshatriya, Vaishya, Shudra); Prajapati/Vishnu/Shiva gain importance; 16 Mahajanapadas emerge
Four Vedas	Rigveda (hymns — oldest), Samaveda (melodies), Yajurveda (rituals), Atharvaveda (spells/medicine)
Upanishads	~108 Upanishads; philosophical texts; Brahman-Atman concept; Chandogya, Brihadaranyaka most important

16 Mahajanapadas and Key Republics

Most powerful: Magadha (Pataliputra), Kosala (Shravasti), Vajji (Vaishali — first republic)
Vajji confederation — world's first federal republic; Vaishali important for Buddhism
Magadha's rise: fertile land, iron ore, Ganges trade, Rajgriha then Pataliputra as capital

Buddhism and Jainism

Aspect	Buddhism	Jainism
Founder	Gautama Buddha (Siddhartha); born Lumbini (Nepal) ~563 BCE	Vardhamana Mahavira; 24th tirthankara; born Vaishali ~599 BCE
Enlightenment	Bodh Gaya (Bihar) under Peepal tree; first sermon at Sarnath (Deer Park)	Jnana at age 42 at Jrimbhikagrama
Death (Parinirvana/Nirvana)	Kushinagar (UP) at age 80	Pavapuri (Bihar) — fasted to death (Sallekhana)
Core teaching	Four Noble Truths, Eightfold Path, Middle Path; Anatta (no self); Anicca (impermanence)	Five vows (Pancha Mahavrata): Ahimsa, Satya, Asteya, Brahmacharya, Aparigraha; Anekantavada (many-sidedness)
Sects	Hinayana/Theravada; Mahayana; Vajrayana	Digambara (sky-clad); Shvetambara (white-clad)
Councils	1st: Rajgriha; 2nd: Vaishali; 3rd: Pataliputra (Ashoka); 4th: Kashmir (Kanishka)	—

Mauryan Empire (321–185 BCE)

Ruler	Key Facts
Chandragupta Maurya	Founded empire; defeated Nanda dynasty; defeated Seleucus Nicator (312 BCE); Megasthenes sent as ambassador; wrote Indica; converted to Jainism; died at Shravanabelagola
Bindusara	Son of Chandragupta; expanded south; known as "Slayer of enemies" (Amitraghata)
Ashoka (268–232 BCE)	Kalinga War 261 BCE → transformation; propagated Dhamma (not Buddhism per se); sent missionaries (Mahendra, Sanghamitra to Sri Lanka); inscriptions on rocks, pillars; Arthashastra by Kautilya/Chanakya; National Emblem = Lion Capital at Sarnath

Gupta Empire (320–550 CE) — Golden Age

Founded by Chandragupta I; expanded by Samudragupta (Allahabad pillar inscription — Harisena composed it)
Chandragupta II (Vikramaditya) — defeated Shakas; era of Kalidasa (Abhijnanasakuntalam, Meghaduta, Raghuvamsha)
Aryabhatta — calculated π, heliocentric theory, zero concept; wrote Aryabhatiya
Varahamihira — Brihat Samhita; astronomy and astrology
Nalanda University established during this period (5th century CE)
Decline: White Hun (Huna) invasions

UPSC Tip: Lothal had India's first dock/shipyard. Rakhigarhi is the largest IVC site in India. Aryabhatta wrote Aryabhatiya (not Brahmasphutasiddhanta — that's Brahmagupta). Nalanda ≠ Taxila (Taxila was in Gandhara, present-day Pakistan; pre-Mauryan).

2Medieval India►

Medieval India covers the period from ~600 CE to the Mughal period (1526–1857). UPSC tests the Delhi Sultanate, Mughal administration, Vijayanagara Empire, Bhakti movement, and Sufi movement heavily.

Delhi Sultanate (1206–1526)

Dynasty	Period	Key Rulers	Notable
Slave/Mamluk	1206–1290	Qutbuddin Aibak, Iltutmish, Razia Sultan, Balban	Qutub Minar; Iltutmish introduced iqta system; first Muslim woman ruler Razia
Khalji	1290–1320	Alauddin Khalji, Jalaluddin Khalji	Market reforms (4 markets); conquered South India; repelled Mongols; Malik Kafur general
Tughlaq	1320–1414	Ghiyasuddin, Muhammad bin Tughlaq, Firuz Shah	Muhammad = token currency disaster + capital shift to Daulatabad; Firuz = welfare works
Sayyid	1414–1451	Khizr Khan	Weak; Timur's invasion aftermath
Lodi	1451–1526	Bahlul Lodi, Sikandar Lodi, Ibrahim Lodi	First Afghan dynasty; Ibrahim defeated by Babur at First Battle of Panipat 1526

Vijayanagara Empire (1336–1646)

Founded by Harihara I and Bukka Raya (Sangama dynasty) at Hampi (Karnataka)
Four dynasties: Sangama → Saluva → Tuluva → Aravidu
Krishnadevaraya (Tuluva, 1509–1529) — greatest ruler; poet (Amuktamalyada, Telugu); Tenali Rama at court
Battle of Talikota/Rakshasi-Tangadi (1565) — Deccan Sultans defeated Vijayanagara; Hampi sacked
Abdur Razzak, Nicolo Conti, Domingo Paes — foreign visitors who left accounts

Mughal Empire (1526–1857)

Ruler	Period	Key Contributions
Babur	1526–1530	Defeated Ibrahim Lodi (Panipat I, 1526); defeated Rana Sanga (Khanwa, 1527); introduced gunpowder/artillery; Baburnama (autobiography)
Humayun	1530–40, 1555–56	Lost empire to Sher Shah Suri; regained with Safavid help; died falling from library stairs; Din-Panah (Delhi)
Sher Shah Suri	1540–1545	Grand Trunk Road (Kabul–Bengal); Rupee introduced; postal system; land revenue reform (zabti system); Rohtas Fort
Akbar	1556–1605	Din-i-Ilahi (personal faith, not religion); Sulh-i-kul (peace for all); Ibadat Khana; abolished jizya; Fatehpur Sikri; Navratnas court; Ain-i-Akbari by Abul Fazl
Jahangir	1605–1627	Justice chain; Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri (autobiography); patron of painting (Ustad Mansur); Noor Jahan's influence
Shah Jahan	1627–1658	Taj Mahal (completed 1653, architect Ustad Ahmad Lahauri); Red Fort; Jama Masjid; Shahjahannama; Peacock Throne
Aurangzeb	1658–1707	Re-imposed jizya; Alamgir; Fatwa-e-Alamgiri; banned music at court; Deccan campaigns exhausted empire; Bibi Ka Maqbara

Bhakti and Sufi Movements

Movement	Key Saints	Region/Language	Key Idea
Bhakti (South)	Alvars (Vaishnava), Nayanars (Shaiva)	Tamil Nadu; Tamil	Personal devotion to Vishnu/Shiva; rejected caste
Ramananda	—	North India; Hindi	Bhakti open to all castes; disciple of Ramanuja
Kabir	Kabir Das	Varanasi; Hindi/Doha	Nirguna Bhakti; rejected idol worship; unity of God
Mirabai	—	Rajasthan; Hindi	Devotion to Krishna; wrote bhajans; royal princess
Guru Nanak	—	Punjab; Punjabi	Founded Sikhism; Ik Onkar; Nam Japna, Kirat Karo, Vand Chhako
Tukaram/Eknath	—	Maharashtra; Marathi	Varkari sect; Vitthal devotion
Sufi — Chishti	Moinuddin Chishti (Ajmer), Nizamuddin Auliya (Delhi)	—	Most popular in India; music/qawwali; open to all
Sufi — Suhrawardi	Bahauddin Zakariya	Multan	Less open; accumulated wealth

UPSC Tip: Sher Shah Suri's Rupee was introduced before the Mughals formalised it. Akbar's Navratnas include Birbal, Todar Mal (revenue), Abul Fazl, Tansen (music), Raja Man Singh. Bhakti in South = Alvars/Nayanars (500–900 CE). Mirabai was a Rajput princess (Mewar).

3Modern India — British Rule►

Modern Indian history covers British expansion, economic impact of colonialism, and the response of Indian society. UPSC tests both factual details (dates, acts, governors) and analytical understanding of colonial policies.

British Expansion — Key Events

Event	Year	Significance
Battle of Plassey	1757	Clive defeated Siraj-ud-Daula; EIC dominance in Bengal began
Battle of Buxar	1764	EIC defeated combined armies of Bengal + Awadh + Mughal emperor; Treaty of Allahabad (1765) gave Diwani rights of Bengal, Bihar, Orissa to EIC
Regulating Act	1773	First Parliamentary control over EIC; Governor of Bengal → Governor-General; Supreme Court at Calcutta
Pitt's India Act	1784	Dual control — Board of Control (political) + Court of Directors (commercial)
Charter Act 1813	1813	EIC's trade monopoly ended (except China tea); missionaries allowed; Rs 1 lakh for Indian education
Charter Act 1833	1833	EIC ceased to be trading body; Governor-General of India created (first = Lord William Bentinck); Law Commission (Macaulay); open competition for services (not implemented)
Charter Act 1853	1853	Last Charter Act; open competition for civil services (ICS); Legislation separated from Executive; no charter renewal (EIC became subordinate)
Government of India Act 1858	1858	After 1857 revolt; EIC abolished; Crown rule; Secretary of State + Council of India; Viceroy (replaced Governor-General)

Important Governor-Generals / Viceroys

Name	Period	Key Acts/Events
Warren Hastings	1773–1785	First Governor-General; Regulating Act; Rohilla War; impeached by Parliament
Lord Cornwallis	1786–1793	Permanent Settlement (Zamindari) in Bengal 1793; Civil Services reforms; Cornwallis Code
Lord Wellesley	1798–1805	Subsidiary Alliance; expansion policy; defeated Tipu Sultan (1799)
Lord William Bentinck	1828–1835	Abolition of Sati (1829 — Regulation XVII); suppressed Thuggee; Macaulay's minute on English education; first Governor-General of India
Lord Dalhousie	1848–1856	Doctrine of Lapse; Railways (first line 1853, Bombay–Thane); telegraph; Post Office Act; annexation of Punjab, Awadh
Lord Canning	1856–1862	1857 revolt; Government of India Act 1858; first Viceroy; Indian Councils Act 1861
Lord Ripon	1880–1884	Local Self-Government (1882); Ilbert Bill controversy; First Factory Act 1881
Lord Curzon	1899–1905	Partition of Bengal (1905); NWFP created; Ancient Monuments Act; established Archaeological Survey of India as per its modern form
Lord Irwin (Halifax)	1926–1931	Gandhi-Irwin Pact (1931); Round Table Conferences
Lord Mountbatten	1947	Last Viceroy; Independence and Partition; Mountbatten Plan

Economic Impact of British Rule

Drain of wealth theory: Dadabhai Naoroji (Poverty and Un-British Rule in India, 1901)
De-industrialisation: Collapse of Indian textile industry; Indian artisans displaced
Land revenue systems: Permanent Settlement (Bengal — Cornwallis 1793); Ryotwari (Madras, Bombay — direct settlement with peasant); Mahalwari (NW Provinces, Punjab — village community)
Railways: Integrated market; but also facilitated raw material export and British goods import
Famines: 1770 (Great Bengal Famine), 1876–78 (Deccan), 1899–1900 — under British policies

UPSC Tip: Doctrine of Lapse (Dalhousie) — state annexed if ruler dies without natural heir and doesn't adopt. Annexed: Satara (1848), Jhansi (1853), Nagpur (1854), Awadh (1856). Subsidiary Alliance (Wellesley) — Indian ruler pays for British troops stationed in his territory.

4Freedom Struggle►

The Indian Freedom Struggle (1857–1947) is one of the most heavily tested areas in UPSC Prelims — especially Gandhian movements, Congress sessions, revolutionary nationalism, and women leaders.

Revolt of 1857

Immediate cause: Greased cartridges (beef and pork fat) for Enfield rifles
First spark: Mangal Pandey at Barrackpore; main outbreak at Meerut (10 May 1857)
Major centres and leaders: Delhi (Bahadur Shah Zafar), Lucknow (Begum Hazrat Mahal), Jhansi (Rani Lakshmibai), Kanpur (Nana Sahib + Tantia Tope), Bareilly (Khan Bahadur Khan)
Called: Sepoy Mutiny (British), First War of Independence (V.D. Savarkar), Popular Revolt (S.N. Sen)

Early Nationalist Organisations

Organisation	Year	Founder
Brahmo Samaj	1828	Raja Ram Mohan Roy — against sati, child marriage; English education
Arya Samaj	1875	Swami Dayanand Saraswati — "Back to Vedas"; Hindi promotion; Shuddhi movement
Ramakrishna Mission	1897	Swami Vivekananda — service to man is service to God; Chicago speech 1893
Indian National Congress (INC)	1885	A.O. Hume (retired ICS), Dadabhai Naoroji first President; Bombay
Muslim League	1906	Dhaka; Aga Khan; two-nation theory developed later under Jinnah

Phases of Congress and Key Sessions

Phase/Session	Key Event
Moderates (1885–1905)	Constitutional methods; petitions; key leaders: Gokhale, Dadabhai Naoroji, Surendranath Banerjea
Surat Split (1907)	Moderates vs Extremists (Tilak, Lal-Bal-Pal); split over Partition of Bengal response
Lucknow Pact (1916)	Congress–Muslim League unity; joint electorate compromise
Calcutta Session (1920)	Gandhi given leadership; Non-Cooperation Movement launched
Lahore Session (1929)	Poorna Swaraj (complete independence) declared; 26 Jan 1930 as Independence Day; Nehru as president
Karachi Session (1931)	Fundamental Rights and Economic Policy Resolution; Gandhi-Irwin Pact ratified
Haripura Session (1938)	Subhas Chandra Bose elected president; Wardha scheme on education
Tripuri Session (1939)	Bose re-elected but resigned; Gandhi opposed; Bose formed Forward Bloc

Gandhian Movements

Movement	Year	Key Facts
Champaran Satyagraha	1917	Bihar; tinkathia system — indigo planters; Gandhi's first satyagraha in India
Kheda Satyagraha	1918	Gujarat; crop failure; no-tax campaign; Patel's first major role
Rowlatt Satyagraha	1919	Rowlatt Act — detention without trial; Jallianwala Bagh massacre (13 April 1919 — Reginald Dyer); Rabindranath Tagore returned knighthood
Non-Cooperation Movement	1920–1922	Boycott of government institutions, councils, courts; return of titles; ended after Chauri Chaura (Feb 1922 — mob burned police station, UP)
Civil Disobedience Movement	1930–1934	Dandi March (12 March–5 April 1930, 390 km, 78 followers); Salt Satyagraha; Poona Pact 1932 (Gandhi–Ambedkar)
Individual Satyagraha	1940	Selected individuals (Vinoba Bhave first); freedom of speech demand
Quit India Movement	1942	"Do or Die" — 8 August 1942; Gandhi, Nehru arrested; parallel governments at Satara, Tamluk, Ballia; August Kranti Maidan (Mumbai)

Revolutionary Nationalism

Bal Gangadhar Tilak — "Swaraj is my birthright"; Kesari newspaper; Home Rule League (1916)
Bhagat Singh — HSRA; assembly bomb (1929); hanged 23 March 1931 (Lahore)
Subhas Chandra Bose — INA (Indian National Army); "Azad Hind Fauj"; "Jai Hind"; Singapore declaration 1943
Lal-Bal-Pal: Lala Lajpat Rai (Punjab), Bal Gangadhar Tilak (Maharashtra), Bipin Chandra Pal (Bengal)

UPSC Tip: Chauri Chaura = UP, not Gandhi's location. Poona Pact 1932 = Gandhi vs Ambedkar on separate electorate for depressed classes (Gandhi fasted; agreed to reserved seats in joint electorate). Jallianwala Bagh = Amritsar. INA trials at Red Fort 1945–46 helped ignite popular sentiment for independence.

5Art and Culture►

Art and Culture is among the most asked topics in UPSC Prelims in recent years — especially temple architecture, classical dance forms, classical music, and UNESCO heritage sites. It requires memorising specific details.

Temple Architecture

Style	Region	Features	Examples
Nagara (North Indian)	North India	Curved/beehive shikhara; absence of compound wall (originally); amalaka on top; garbhagriha	Khajuraho temples (Chandela), Lingaraj (Bhubaneswar), Konark (Sun Temple)
Dravidian (South Indian)	South India	Pyramidal vimana; towering gopuram (gateway tower); large compound walls; water tanks	Brihadeeswara (Thanjavur — Chola), Meenakshi (Madurai), Shore Temple (Pallava)
Vesara (Mixed)	Deccan	Mix of Nagara and Dravidian; star-shaped plan	Hoysala temples (Belur, Halebidu), Chalukya temples at Aihole, Badami, Pattadakal
Buddhist Architecture	Pan-India	Stupa (relic mound), Chaitya (prayer hall), Vihara (monastery)	Sanchi Stupa (Ashoka; Great Gateway = Satavahana); Ajanta (paintings); Ellora (rock-cut); Amaravati stupa

Classical Dance Forms

Dance Form	State	Key Features
Bharatanatyam	Tamil Nadu	Oldest; Devadasi tradition; Abhinaya Darpana; Rukmini Devi Arundale revived it
Kathak	UP (North India)	Both Hindu (Bhakti) and Mughal (court) influences; footwork (tatkar); Lucknow and Jaipur gharanas
Odissi	Odisha	Tribhangi posture (three bends); devotion to Jagannath; Guru Kelucharan Mohapatra
Kuchipudi	Andhra Pradesh	Male performers (Brahmin boys) traditionally; dramatic element; also performed in Telugu-speaking areas
Manipuri	Manipur	Ras Leela (Krishna-Radha); soft, graceful; no stamping of feet
Kathakali	Kerala	Male performers; elaborate makeup (Chutti); stories from Ramayana and Mahabharata; eye movements
Sattriya	Assam	Newest recognised (2000); Vaishnavite; monastery tradition; Srimanta Sankardev
Mohiniyattam	Kerala	Female solo; graceful, lyrical; white/cream costume; Lasya style

Classical Music

Aspect	Hindustani	Carnatic
Region	North India	South India
Influence	Persian/Mughal influence	Largely untouched by foreign influence
Key concept	Raga (melody) + Tala (rhythm); improvisation important	More compositional; Kriti/Kirtan forms
Trinity	Tansen (Mughal court), Amir Khusro	Tyagaraja, Muthuswami Dikshitar, Syama Sastri
Instruments	Sitar, Sarod, Tabla, Bansuri, Santoor	Veena, Mridangam, Ghatam
Vocal forms	Khayal, Thumri, Dhrupad, Dhamar	Kriti, Varnam, Padam, Javali

UNESCO World Heritage Sites in India (Selected)

Cultural: Ajanta Caves, Ellora Caves, Agra Fort, Taj Mahal, Fatehpur Sikri, Group of Monuments at Hampi, Khajuraho temples, Mahabodhi Temple (Bodh Gaya), Sanchi, Konark Sun Temple, Chola temples, Elephanta Caves, Rani-ki-Vav, Mountain Railways (Darjeeling/Nilgiri/Kalka-Shimla), Victorian Gothic & Art Deco Ensembles (Mumbai), Hoysala temples (2023)
Natural: Kaziranga NP, Manas NP, Keoladeo NP, Sundarbans NP, Nanda Devi & Valley of Flowers, Western Ghats, Great Himalayan NP
Mixed: Khangchendzonga NP (2016 — India's first mixed site)
Total India UNESCO sites: 42 (as of 2023)

UPSC Tip: Sattriya was the 8th classical dance form (recognised in 2000; earlier 7 were Bharatanatyam, Kathak, Odissi, Kuchipudi, Manipuri, Kathakali, Mohiniyattam). Konark Sun Temple has Nagara style. Khangchendzonga = India's first and only mixed UNESCO site. Sanchi's Great Gateway (Torana) = Satavahana period, not Ashoka (who built the stupa).

6Post-Independence India►

Post-independence events including princely state integration, major constitutional developments, and Five-Year Plans are tested in both Prelims and Mains. Key dates and architects of modern India must be known.

Integration of Princely States

On Independence (15 August 1947), 562 princely states to be integrated
Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel (Iron Man of India, first Home Minister) with V.P. Menon integrated most states
Hyderabad: Operation Polo (Police Action) September 1948 — forcible integration; Nizam surrendered
Junagarh: Referendum led to accession to India
Kashmir: Hari Singh signed Instrument of Accession October 1947 (after Pakistani tribal invasion); Article 370 granted special status (abrogated August 2019)
Goa: Liberated from Portuguese rule — Operation Vijay (December 1961); 19th state

Key Constitutional Amendments

Amendment	Year	Subject
1st	1951	Added 9th Schedule; restricted Fundamental Rights for social legislation
7th	1956	Reorganised states on linguistic basis (States Reorganisation Act 1956); abolished Part B states
42nd	1976	"Mini Constitution"; Emergency era; added Socialist, Secular, Integrity to Preamble; DPSP over FR; added Fundamental Duties (Art 51A)
44th	1978	Restored some rights curtailed in 42nd; Right to Property removed from FR (Art 19/31) → Art 300A (legal right)
52nd	1985	Anti-defection law (10th Schedule)
61st	1988	Voting age 21 → 18
73rd	1992	Panchayati Raj (Part IX); 11th Schedule; 3-tier; reservations for women/SC/ST
74th	1992	Urban Local Bodies (Part IX-A); 12th Schedule; Nagarpalika/Municipal Corporation
86th	2002	Right to Education (Art 21A); 6–14 years; also added Art 51A(k) duty of parents
101st	2016	Goods and Services Tax (GST)
103rd	2019	10% EWS (Economically Weaker Section) reservation in education and public employment

Economic History — Planning

Planning Commission established 1950 (replaced by NITI Aayog in 2015)
1st Five Year Plan (1951–56): Agriculture focus; Damodar Valley Corporation
2nd Five Year Plan (1956–61): Mahalanobis model; heavy industry; Bhilai, Durgapur, Rourkela steel plants
Green Revolution: Late 1960s; HYV seeds (Norman Borlaug); M.S. Swaminathan; Punjab, Haryana, UP; wheat then rice
White Revolution (Operation Flood): Verghese Kurien; AMUL; 1970–1996; dairy
LPG Reforms (1991): P.V. Narasimha Rao (PM) + Manmohan Singh (FM); Liberalisation, Privatisation, Globalisation; balance of payments crisis

UPSC Tip: Green Revolution father in India = M.S. Swaminathan (not Borlaug who developed HYV seeds). White Revolution = Verghese Kurien. Planning Commission replaced by NITI Aayog (1 Jan 2015). Operation Polo = Hyderabad integration (not Goa — Goa was Operation Vijay).

★Key Facts & Exam Essentials►

Topic	Key Fact
Largest IVC site (India)	Rakhigarhi (Haryana); largest overall = Mohenjo-daro
Lothal	Gujarat; IVC site with world's first dock/shipyard
Buddha — 4 events	Birth: Lumbini; Enlightenment: Bodh Gaya; First sermon: Sarnath; Death: Kushinagar
Ashoka — Kalinga War	261 BCE; led to his conversion to Buddhism's non-violence
Nalanda University	Bihar; 5th century CE (Gupta); destroyed by Bakhtiyar Khilji 1193
First Battle of Panipat	1526 — Babur defeated Ibrahim Lodi
Second Battle of Panipat	1556 — Akbar defeated Hemu
Third Battle of Panipat	1761 — Ahmad Shah Abdali defeated Marathas
Battle of Plassey	1757 — British defeated Siraj-ud-Daula
Permanent Settlement	1793 — Cornwallis — Bengal, Bihar, Orissa — Zamindars as revenue collectors
Abolition of Sati	1829 — Bentinck — Regulation XVII
Partition of Bengal	1905 — Lord Curzon — reversed 1911
Jallianwala Bagh	13 April 1919 — Amritsar — General Dyer ordered firing
Dandi March	12 March – 5 April 1930 — 390 km — 78 followers
Quit India	8 August 1942 — "Do or Die" — Gandhi arrested day after
INA founder	Mohan Singh founded; Bose reorganised; Lakshmi Sahgal — Rani of Jhansi Regiment
Classical dance forms (8)	Bharatanatyam, Kathak, Odissi, Kuchipudi, Manipuri, Kathakali, Mohiniyattam, Sattriya
Sattriya added	2000 — Assam — 8th classical dance form
Brihadeeswara Temple	Thanjavur — Chola — Dravidian style — Raja Raja Chola I
Khangchendzonga NP	India's first and only mixed UNESCO World Heritage Site (2016)
Operation Polo	September 1948 — Hyderabad integration by Sardar Patel
LPG Reforms	1991 — Narasimha Rao (PM) — Manmohan Singh (FM)

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History, Art & Culture – Complete Study Notes

Indus Valley Civilisation (IVC) — ~3300–1300 BCE

Vedic Period

16 Mahajanapadas and Key Republics

Buddhism and Jainism

Mauryan Empire (321–185 BCE)

Gupta Empire (320–550 CE) — Golden Age

Delhi Sultanate (1206–1526)

Vijayanagara Empire (1336–1646)

Mughal Empire (1526–1857)

Bhakti and Sufi Movements

British Expansion — Key Events

Important Governor-Generals / Viceroys

Economic Impact of British Rule

Revolt of 1857

Early Nationalist Organisations

Phases of Congress and Key Sessions

Gandhian Movements

Revolutionary Nationalism

Temple Architecture

Classical Dance Forms

Classical Music

UNESCO World Heritage Sites in India (Selected)

Integration of Princely States

Key Constitutional Amendments

Economic History — Planning