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Science & Technology – Complete Study Notes

UPSC CSE Prelims Mains GS III

Complete Study Notes for UPSC CSE Prelims GS Paper III

Ch 1 · Space Technology Ch 2 · Biotechnology Ch 3 · Defence Technology Ch 4 · Nuclear Technology Ch 5 · IT & Cybersecurity Ch 6 · Emerging Tech Quick Revision
1Space Technology & ISRO►

ISRO missions are asked almost every year in UPSC. Chandrayaan-3, Mangalyaan, Aditya-L1, NavIC, and India's launch vehicles are high-priority topics. Keep track of the latest ISRO achievements for current affairs links.

ISRO — Indian Space Research Organisation

AspectDetails
Established1969; HQ Bengaluru
UnderDepartment of Space (DOS); directly under PM; Space Commission is apex body
First Indian satelliteAryabhata (1975, launched by USSR)
First indigenously launched satelliteRohini (RS-1) by SLV-3, 1980; SLV-3 built by A.P.J. Abdul Kalam
IN-SPACeIndian National Space Promotion and Authorisation Centre (2020); promotes private sector participation in space
NSILNewSpace India Limited; ISRO's commercial arm; launched OneWeb satellites on LVM3

Launch Vehicles

VehicleTypePayload / Use
PSLV (Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle)4-stage (solid-liquid alternating); workhorse of ISRO~1750 kg to SSO; launches Earth observation + navigation satellites; launched 104 satellites in one go (2017)
GSLV Mk II3-stage with cryogenic upper stage (indigenous); CUS (Cryogenic Upper Stage)~2500 kg to GTO; communication satellites
LVM3 / GSLV Mk IIIHeavy-lift; indigenous cryo + semi-cryo; human-rated~10,000 kg to LEO / ~4,000 kg to GTO; used for Chandrayaan-3, OneWeb; Gaganyaan missions
SSLV (Small Satellite Launch Vehicle)3-stage solid; quick turnaround (<7 days)~500 kg to LEO; low-cost small satellite launches

Key ISRO Missions

MissionYearKey Achievement
Chandrayaan-12008India's first lunar mission; orbiter + Moon Impact Probe; discovered water molecules (OH) on lunar surface
Chandrayaan-22019Orbiter (still functional) + Vikram lander (hard landing); Pragyan rover; orbiter continues science operations
Chandrayaan-32023Successful soft landing near lunar south pole (23 Aug 2023); India = 4th country to land on Moon (after USSR, USA, China); 1st to land near south pole
Mangalyaan (MOM)2013 (launched); 2014 (Mars orbit)India's first Mars mission; 1st Asian country to reach Mars; 1st country to succeed in maiden attempt; lost contact 2022
Aditya-L12023India's first solar observatory mission; positioned at Sun-Earth L1 Lagrange point (~1.5 million km from Earth); studies solar wind, corona
NavIC (Navigation with Indian Constellation)Operational ~2018India's regional navigation satellite system; 7 satellites; covers India + 1,500 km beyond; independent of GPS; used in fisheries, surveying, disaster management
GaganyaanPlanned 2025India's first crewed spaceflight; 3-person crew; LVM3 launch vehicle; TV-D1 abort test successful (2023)
IRNSS / NavICSeries 2013–20187 satellites (3 GEO + 4 GSO); India's own GPS; signals: L5 and S-band

Satellite Types

  • IRS (Indian Remote Sensing): Earth observation; land use, agriculture, disaster mapping
  • INSAT (Indian National Satellite System): communication + meteorology; GSAT series succeeds INSAT
  • Cartosat series: high-resolution imaging for cartography, defence
  • Resourcesat, RISAT: agricultural monitoring, radar imaging
  • LEO (Low Earth Orbit): 200–2000 km; ISS, remote sensing, Starlink
  • GEO (Geostationary): 35,786 km; appears stationary; communications, weather
  • Lagrange Points: L1 (Sun-Earth, solar observation); L2 (away from Sun, JWST); stable gravitational points
Key: Chandrayaan-3 = 1st lunar south pole landing (2023). Mangalyaan = 1st Asian Mars mission (2014), 1st country in maiden attempt. Aditya-L1 = L1 Lagrange point. NavIC = 7 satellites, 1500 km coverage. Gaganyaan = India's crewed mission. PSLV = workhorse. LVM3 = heavy lift.
2Biotechnology & Life Sciences►

Biotechnology covers GMOs, CRISPR, vaccines, and biosafety — all frequently combined with current affairs in UPSC. Bt Cotton, GM Mustard, gene therapy, and India's regulatory framework (GEAC) are priority topics.

Recombinant DNA Technology and GMOs

  • Recombinant DNA (rDNA): inserting foreign DNA into an organism's genome using restriction enzymes and ligase; enables genetically modified organisms (GMOs)
  • Bt Crops: gene from Bacillus thuringiensis (soil bacterium) introduced; produces Cry proteins toxic to specific insect pests; Bt Cotton = only approved GM crop for commercial cultivation in India (2002)
  • GM Mustard (DMH-11): developed by Delhi University; herbicide-tolerant + higher yield; GEAC approved (2022) but faces legal challenges in Supreme Court
  • Golden Rice: enriched with beta-carotene (pro-vitamin A); developed to combat Vitamin A deficiency; not yet approved in India
  • GEAC: Genetic Engineering Appraisal Committee; under MoEFCC; apex body for approval of GMOs in India

CRISPR-Cas9 and Gene Editing

  • CRISPR = Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats; natural bacterial immune system adapted for gene editing
  • Cas9 = "molecular scissors" protein that cuts DNA at precise locations guided by guide RNA (gRNA)
  • Uses: disease treatment, crop improvement, malaria vector control (gene drives), cancer research
  • Jennifer Doudna + Emmanuelle Charpentier: Nobel Prize in Chemistry 2020 for CRISPR development
  • Concerns: off-target effects, ethical issues (designer babies, germline editing)

Vaccines and Immunology

Vaccine TypeMechanismExamples
Live AttenuatedWeakened pathogen; strong immune response; not suitable for immunocompromisedOPV (oral polio), MMR, BCG, Yellow Fever
Killed / InactivatedDead pathogen; safer; needs multiple dosesIPV (injectable polio), Hepatitis A, Covaxin (India's COVID vaccine)
Subunit / ProteinOnly specific protein/antigen from pathogenHepatitis B, HPV (Gardasil), Pertussis component
mRNA VaccinemRNA instructs cells to make antigen; first time used at scale; no DNA integration; degrades quicklyPfizer-BioNTech, Moderna (COVID-19); India: mRNA platform under development
Viral VectorModified harmless virus carries antigen geneCovishield (AstraZeneca-Oxford); Sputnik V; J&J
DNA VaccineDNA plasmid; ZyCoV-D = world's first approved DNA vaccine (India, 2021, COVID-19)ZyCoV-D (Zydus)

Key Biotech Concepts

  • Stem Cells: undifferentiated cells capable of self-renewal and differentiation; Embryonic SC (pluripotent, ethical issues) vs Adult SC (multipotent); iPSC (induced pluripotent stem cells) — Yamanaka Nobel 2012
  • Gene Therapy: treating disease by introducing, altering, or replacing genetic material; ex vivo vs in vivo approaches; first FDA-approved: 2017
  • Bioinformatics: use of computer science and statistics to analyse biological data (genome sequences, protein structures)
  • Human Genome Project: 1990–2003; sequenced all 3 billion base pairs; ~20,000–25,000 genes; launched precision medicine era
  • Pharmacogenomics: study of how genes affect drug response; personalized medicine
  • DBT: Department of Biotechnology (India); under Ministry of Science & Technology; funds biotech research; BIRAC under it
Key: Bt Cotton = only GM crop approved for commercial cultivation in India. GEAC under MoEFCC approves GMOs. CRISPR-Cas9 = Nobel 2020 (Doudna + Charpentier). ZyCoV-D = world's first approved DNA vaccine (India, 2021). Covaxin = inactivated (ICMR + Bharat Biotech). Covishield = viral vector (Serum Institute).
3Defence Technology►

India's missile systems, DRDO, indigenous defence platforms, and arms control treaties are regularly tested. The Make in India push in defence (Atmanirbhar Bharat) and export targets are current affairs-linked topics.

India's Missile Systems

MissileTypeRange / SpeedKey Fact
Agni-I to VBallistic (surface-to-surface)700 km (Agni-I) to 5,000+ km (Agni-V); Agni-V = ICBM rangeIndia's strategic nuclear deterrent; DRDO + BDL developed; Agni-V first tested 2012
Prithvi-I/II/IIIBallistic (surface-to-surface)150–350 km; liquid-fuelledFirst indigenously developed ballistic missile (Prithvi-I, 1988)
BrahMosSupersonic cruise missile300–500 km; Mach 2.8–3.0India-Russia joint venture (Brahmaputra + Moskva rivers); surface-launched, ship-launched, air-launched; world's fastest operational cruise missile; exported to Philippines (2022)
AkashSurface-to-air (SAM)30 km range; Mach 2.5Indigenously developed; protects against aircraft + missiles; supersonic
NagAnti-tank guided missile (ATGM)500 m – 4 kmThird generation; fire-and-forget; imaging infrared seeker; Helina = helicopter-launched version
AstraBeyond-Visual-Range (BVR) air-to-air80–100 kmIndia's first indigenous BVR AAM; for Tejas, Sukhoi-30MKI
S-400 TriumfRussian SAM system400 km range; targets aircraft, missiles, dronesIndia purchased 5 squadrons; partial delivery complete; triggered CAATSA concerns with USA

DRDO and Key Platforms

  • DRDO: Defence Research and Development Organisation; under Ministry of Defence; ~50 labs; 5,000+ scientists; develops indigenous defence systems
  • HAL Tejas: Light Combat Aircraft (LCA); India's first fully indigenous multi-role fighter jet; single-engine delta wing; IAF inducted; Tejas MkII under development
  • INS Vikrant (IAC-1): India's first indigenously built aircraft carrier; commissioned Sept 2022; 45,000 tonnes; Kochi (GRSE/CSL); carries MiG-29K fighters + Ka-31 helicopters
  • ATAGS (Advanced Towed Artillery Gun System): 155 mm/52 calibre howitzer; range 48 km; DRDO + Bharat Forge; world-record range for towed gun
  • K-15 Sagarika / K-4: Submarine-Launched Ballistic Missiles (SLBM) for INS Arihant (India's first nuclear submarine)
  • INS Arihant: India's first nuclear-powered ballistic missile submarine (SSBN); completed India's nuclear triad (land + air + sea)

Arms Control Treaties — India's Position

TreatyIndia's StatusReason
NPT (Non-Proliferation Treaty, 1968)Non-signatoryConsiders discriminatory (only P-5 recognised as NWS); but is a de facto nuclear state
CTBT (Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty, 1996)Not ratifiedObjects to not entering into force; Pokhran-II tests 1998 (Operation Shakti)
MTCR (Missile Technology Control Regime)Member since 2016Controls export of missiles and related technology
Australia GroupMember since 2018Controls export of chemical and biological weapons-related material
Wassenaar ArrangementMember since 2017Controls export of conventional arms and dual-use technologies
NSG (Nuclear Suppliers Group)Not a memberIndia pushing for membership; China blocks; India-US nuclear deal (2008) gave waiver
Key: BrahMos = India-Russia joint venture; world's fastest cruise missile; Mach 2.8–3.0. Agni-V = ICBM range (5000+ km). INS Arihant = completed nuclear triad. India not in NPT/CTBT. MTCR member 2016. Tejas = India's first indigenous fighter jet. INS Vikrant commissioned 2022.
4Nuclear Technology►

India's three-stage nuclear programme, nuclear power plants, and arms control treaties (NPT, CTBT, NSG) are important for UPSC. The India-US nuclear deal and Pokhran tests are frequently asked in Prelims and Mains.

Nuclear Fission vs Fusion

AspectFissionFusion
ProcessHeavy nucleus (U-235, Pu-239) splits into smaller nuclei; chain reactionLight nuclei (H-2, H-3) combine to form heavier nucleus; requires extreme temperature (~100 million °C)
Energy releasedLarge; controlled in reactors / uncontrolled in bombsEven larger; clean (helium + neutron byproduct); no long-lived radioactive waste
Current useNuclear power plants, atomic bombsExperimental (ITER project); hydrogen bomb (uncontrolled); Sun's energy source
FuelUranium-235, Plutonium-239Deuterium, Tritium (hydrogen isotopes)
India statusOperating 7 nuclear power plants (23 reactors)India partner in ITER (International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor, France)

India's Three-Stage Nuclear Programme (Homi Bhabha)

  • Stage 1: Pressurised Heavy Water Reactors (PHWRs) using natural uranium; produces plutonium as by-product
  • Stage 2: Fast Breeder Reactors (FBRs) using plutonium from Stage 1 + thorium blanket; breeds more fuel than consumed; PFBR at Kalpakkam (under commissioning)
  • Stage 3: Thorium-based reactors; India has world's largest thorium reserves (~25% of global thorium); long-term energy security
  • Rationale: India has limited uranium but vast thorium reserves; programme designed for energy independence

India's Nuclear Milestones

EventYearDetails
DAE established1954Department of Atomic Energy; under PM; Homi J. Bhabha = first chairman
BARC established1954 (AEET); renamed 1966Bhabha Atomic Research Centre, Trombay (Mumbai); India's premier nuclear research centre
Pokhran-I (Smiling Buddha)1974First nuclear test; peaceful nuclear explosion (PNE); PM Indira Gandhi
Pokhran-II (Operation Shakti)1998 (May 11–13)Five tests; India declared nuclear weapon state; PM Vajpayee; triggered CTBT debate
India-US Nuclear Deal (123 Agreement)2005 (announced); 2008 (finalised)Ended India's nuclear isolation; NSG waiver; civil nuclear cooperation; separates civil and military facilities
No-First-Use (NFU) policy1998India declared NFU: will not use nuclear weapons first; credible minimum deterrence

Nuclear Power in India

  • NPCIL: Nuclear Power Corporation of India Limited; operates nuclear power plants; 23 operating reactors (~7,480 MW)
  • Largest nuclear plant: Kudankulam (Tamil Nadu); Russian collaboration (VVER-1000 reactors)
  • AEC (Atomic Energy Commission): apex policy body; chaired by Secretary, DAE
  • Radioactive waste: classified as low/medium/high level; deep geological repositories for HLW
  • ITER: International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor (France); 35 nations incl. India; aims to achieve Q=10 fusion gain
Key: India's nuclear programme = 3 stages (Bhabha). Stage 3 = thorium (25% global reserves in India). Pokhran-I = 1974 (Indira Gandhi). Pokhran-II = 1998 Operation Shakti (Vajpayee). India not in NPT/CTBT. NFU policy = 1998. Kudankulam = largest nuclear plant. BARC = Trombay.
5Information Technology & Cybersecurity►

IT, cybersecurity, and digital governance are increasingly tested in UPSC. IT Act 2000, CERT-In, Digital India, data protection, and India's semiconductor push are standard topics. AI and quantum computing are emerging themes.

IT Act 2000 and Amendments

  • IT Act 2000: India's primary legislation for cybercrime and electronic commerce
  • Section 43: Unauthorised access to computer systems; civil liability; compensation
  • Section 66: Computer-related offences; up to 3 years imprisonment
  • Section 66A: Sending offensive messages — struck down by Supreme Court (Shreya Singhal case, 2015) as unconstitutional (violated Article 19)
  • Section 69: Powers to issue directions for interception, monitoring, or decryption
  • Section 79: Safe harbour provision for intermediaries (not liable for third-party content if due diligence followed)
  • IT Amendment Act 2008: added cyberterrorism (S.66F), data protection provisions

Cybersecurity Framework

BodyRole
CERT-In (Indian Computer Emergency Response Team)Under MeitY; India's national cybersecurity agency; handles cyber incidents; issues alerts; mandatory reporting of incidents within 6 hours (2022 directive)
NCIIPC (National Critical Information Infrastructure Protection Centre)Under NTRO (National Technical Research Organisation); protects critical infrastructure (power, banking, telecom, defence)
MeitYMinistry of Electronics and Information Technology; nods IT Act, Digital India, India Semiconductor Mission
NASSCOMNational Association of Software and Service Companies; industry body for IT sector

Digital India and Key Initiatives

InitiativeLaunchFocus
Digital India Programme20159 pillars: BharatNet, digital infrastructure, e-governance, digital literacy; vision = digitally empowered society and knowledge economy
BharatNet2011 (NOFN); 2016 (BharatNet)Optical fibre connectivity to all 2.5 lakh Gram Panchayats; world's largest rural broadband project
UPI (Unified Payments Interface)2016 (NPCI)Real-time bank-to-bank payments; India = world's largest real-time payment ecosystem; ~10 billion transactions/month (2024)
Aadhaar2009 (UIDAI); first card 201012-digit unique biometric ID; ~1.35 billion enrolled; used for DBT, e-KYC, financial inclusion
India AI Mission2024₹10,371 crore; AI compute infrastructure, IndiaAI datasets platform, AI safety framework; 10,000 GPU compute by govt.
India Semiconductor Mission2021Build domestic semiconductor fabrication (fab) capability; ₹76,000 crore incentive scheme; Micron (USA) fab at Sanand, Gujarat (first to break ground)

Data Protection

  • Digital Personal Data Protection (DPDP) Act, 2023: India's data protection law (after years of debate); governs processing of digital personal data; Data Fiduciary (entity processing data) + Data Principal (individual)
  • Principles: consent-based processing; purpose limitation; data minimisation; accuracy; storage limitation
  • Data Protection Board: quasi-judicial body; adjudicates complaints; penalties up to ₹250 crore
  • Cross-border data flows: allowed except to restricted countries (notified by govt.)
Key: IT Act 2000 — S.66A struck down 2015. CERT-In = cybersecurity agency under MeitY; 6-hour incident reporting (2022). Digital India = 2015. UPI = 2016; NPCI. Aadhaar = 12-digit; UIDAI. DPDP Act = 2023. India Semiconductor Mission = 2021; Micron fab at Gujarat.
6Emerging Technologies►

AI, blockchain, 5G, quantum computing, nanotechnology, and 3D printing are increasingly tested in UPSC. These are dynamic topics — link them with current government initiatives and recent developments for Prelims and Mains.

Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Machine Learning

  • AI: systems that perform tasks requiring human intelligence (reasoning, learning, problem-solving)
  • Machine Learning (ML): AI subset; systems learn from data without explicit programming; supervised, unsupervised, reinforcement learning
  • Deep Learning: ML using neural networks with many layers; powers image/speech recognition, NLP
  • Generative AI: creates new content (text, images, code) — GPT (Large Language Models), DALL-E, etc.
  • NITI Aayog's National AI Strategy (AIFORALL 2018): focus on 5 sectors: agriculture, health, education, smart cities, smart mobility
  • India AI Mission (2024): ₹10,371 crore; 10,000 GPU compute; IndiaAI datasets platform; AI safety research

Blockchain Technology

  • Distributed ledger technology: records transactions in blocks linked in a chain; immutable; decentralised; no single point of failure
  • Consensus mechanisms: PoW (Proof of Work — Bitcoin; energy intensive); PoS (Proof of Stake — Ethereum post-Merge; energy efficient)
  • Applications: cryptocurrency (Bitcoin, Ethereum), land records (Andhra Pradesh, Telangana trials), supply chain (medicines, food), e-voting, digital identity
  • Smart contracts: self-executing code on blockchain; Ethereum platform
  • India's stance: not banning blockchain; regulating; VDA (Virtual Digital Assets) taxed at 30% (2022 Budget)

5G Technology

  • 5th generation cellular network; launched in India: October 2022 (Jio + Airtel initially)
  • Peak speeds: up to 20 Gbps (theoretical); practical 1–10 Gbps; latency <1 ms
  • Spectrum bands: sub-6 GHz (better coverage) + mmWave / millimetre wave 24–100 GHz (very high speeds, short range)
  • Key features: eMBB (enhanced mobile broadband), mMTC (massive machine-type communications — IoT), URLLC (ultra-reliable low-latency communications)
  • Applications: autonomous vehicles, remote surgery, smart cities, AR/VR, industrial IoT
  • India vs China: no Huawei/ZTE equipment in Indian 5G networks; security concerns

Quantum Computing and Technology

  • Uses quantum bits (qubits); can exist in superposition (0 and 1 simultaneously); quantum entanglement enables faster computation for specific problems
  • Advantage over classical computers: factoring large numbers (Shor's algorithm), database search (Grover's algorithm), simulation of molecules
  • Threat to current encryption: RSA encryption vulnerable to quantum computers; need post-quantum cryptography
  • National Mission on Quantum Technologies and Applications (NM-QTA): launched 2023; ₹6,000 crore over 5 years; four domains: computing, communication, sensing, materials
  • Quantum Key Distribution (QKD): unhackable communication using quantum physics

Nanotechnology and 3D Printing

TechnologyScale / BasicsApplications
Nanotechnology1–100 nanometres (1 nm = 10⁻⁹ m); manipulates matter at atomic/molecular scaleDrug delivery (nanoparticles cross BBB), cancer therapy, water purification, stronger materials, nanoelectronics; India's Nano Mission under DST
3D Printing (Additive Manufacturing)Layer-by-layer fabrication from digital design; materials: plastics, metals, concrete, bio-inkAerospace (GE jet engine nozzles), medical (prosthetics, organs-on-chip), construction (IIT Madras 3D-printed house), defence (rapid prototyping)
Internet of Things (IoT)Interconnected devices that collect and exchange data via internet without human interventionSmart homes, smart cities, precision agriculture, industrial automation, wearables, healthcare monitoring

Renewable Energy Technologies

  • Solar PV (Photovoltaic): silicon cells convert sunlight to electricity; India target: 500 GW non-fossil by 2030; PLI for solar modules
  • Green Hydrogen: electrolysis of water using renewable electricity; National Green Hydrogen Mission (2023): ₹19,744 crore; 5 MT/year target by 2030
  • Lithium-ion Batteries: Nobel Chemistry 2019 (Goodenough, Whittingham, Yoshino); EVs; India's Lithium discovery in J&K (5.9 million tonnes, 2023); PLI for battery storage
  • Small Modular Reactors (SMRs): next-generation nuclear; <300 MW; factory-built; faster deployment; India developing Bharat Small Modular Reactor
Key: 5G launched India = Oct 2022. NM-QTA = 2023; ₹6,000 crore; 4 domains. India AI Mission = 2024; ₹10,371 crore. Blockchain PoW = energy intensive (Bitcoin); PoS = energy efficient (Ethereum). Green Hydrogen Mission = 2023; 5 MT target 2030. VDA taxed at 30% (India 2022). Nanotechnology = 1–100 nm.
★Science & Technology — Key Facts at a Glance►
TopicKey Fact
ISRO HQBengaluru; established 1969
India's first satelliteAryabhata (1975, launched by USSR)
PSLV specialityWorkhorse; 104 satellites in single launch (2017)
LVM3 / GSLV Mk IIIHeavy-lift; Chandrayaan-3 + OneWeb launch vehicle
Chandrayaan-1 discoveryWater molecules on Moon (2008)
Chandrayaan-3 achievement1st soft landing near lunar south pole (23 Aug 2023); 4th country to land on Moon
Mangalyaan1st Asian Mars mission; 1st country to succeed in maiden attempt (2014)
Aditya-L1India's first solar observatory; L1 Lagrange point (2023)
NavIC coverageIndia + 1,500 km; 7 satellites
GaganyaanIndia's first crewed mission; planned 2025; LVM3
Bt CottonOnly GM crop approved for commercial cultivation in India (2002)
GEACApproves GMOs; under MoEFCC
CRISPR-Cas9 Nobel2020; Jennifer Doudna + Emmanuelle Charpentier
ZyCoV-DWorld's first approved DNA vaccine; India (2021); COVID-19
BrahMos speedMach 2.8–3.0; India-Russia joint venture
INS Vikrant commissioningSeptember 2022; India's first indigenous aircraft carrier
INS Arihant significanceCompleted India's nuclear triad (SSBN)
India nuclear testsPokhran-I 1974 (Smiling Buddha); Pokhran-II 1998 (Operation Shakti)
India not inNPT, CTBT, NSG (seeking membership)
India's nuclear fuel strategy3-stage Bhabha programme; Stage 3 = thorium (25% global reserves)
BARC locationTrombay, Mumbai
IT Act S.66AStruck down by SC 2015 (Shreya Singhal case)
CERT-InUnder MeitY; 6-hour incident reporting (2022 directive)
Digital India launch2015; 9 pillars
UPI launch year2016; NPCI; world's largest real-time payment ecosystem
DPDP ActDigital Personal Data Protection Act 2023
India Semiconductor Mission2021; Micron fab at Sanand, Gujarat
5G launch in IndiaOctober 2022 (Jio + Airtel)
NM-QTA2023; ₹6,000 crore; quantum computing/communication/sensing/materials
India AI Mission2024; ₹10,371 crore; 10,000 GPU
Green Hydrogen target5 MT/year by 2030; National Green Hydrogen Mission 2023